Culture appears world-wide in diverse local and regional forms, which express the full range of human behaviour, thinking and creative action. Their areas of expression e.g. in the form of
rarely correspond exactly to political borders. It is not unusual for individual nation states to be home to different language communities, political persuasions, religions and economic systems. Moreover, these cultural territories are constantly open to the possibility of being either consolidated or transformed by means of exchange, invasion, migration, or even self-imposed isolation. Through the globalisation of trade and information technologies, through travel and migration, through global challenges such as the need to protect our biosphere, to contain violent conflicts, and to provide everyone with a secure livelihood, humanity now finds itself in the dramatic situation of having to pursue cross-cultural understanding without diluting diversity or imposing uniformity. Waldorf education shares this respect for cultural diversity, and while it is firmly committed to supporting its students in developing their own cultural identity, it also prepares them for respectful dialogue with people of other cultures. This obviously implies a fundamental rejection of any hierarchical ranking of cultures.
When the editors of this volume decided to translate the chapters on home language (expressed in German as “mother-tongue”) and history, thus placing them within the context of the international, i.e. inter-cultural, discussion of curricular issues, this was not done with the intention of exporting curricula written for the central-European, German-speaking cultural realm into other countries and cultures. After a long and painstaking discussion as to whether such a misunderstanding could arise, they came to the conclusion that a critical appraisal of the translations could provide the basis for developing the subjects of home language and literature, art appreciation/aesthetics and history according to the cultural perspective of the region or nation concerned. Furthermore, the curricula as written for the German-speaking realm provide a clear example of how lesson content and learning objectives can be matched to particular phases of development and thus support the process of individuation in the students. All this serves to underline the principle that the central task of education based upon understanding of the human being – whatever the subject matter – is to come to terms with the developmental demands inherent in the process of individuation.
Social studies, as a subject, appears in Waldorf schools (and schools in general) in a variety of guises. It belongs in a whole spectrum of subjects dealing with social matters, and its aim is to promote reflective understanding of the processes of social interaction. In addition, its task is to equip students with practical guidance in the purpose and uses of existing social, political and economic institutions. Social studies should also alert them to areas of socio-political life that may be in need of development or change, and how they might become actively involved in these processes. As such it is both cognitive and practical in approach and, as a subject in its own right, finds its place chiefly in the high school from class 9 onwards. Thus social studies has a special profile within the general context of social learning. Social learning is central to Waldorf education as a whole, and thus constitutes a guiding principle for learning situations both inside and outside the classroom. In other words, it is a field of pedagogical endeavour that transcends all definable subject areas.
For a long time matters of social life were dealt with in a variety of pedagogical contexts in Waldorf schools. From the 1970’s onwards the subject of social studies began taking shape in a number of Waldorf schools. It was usually given a small number of lessons on the timetable, and the teachers chose lesson content in tune with that of other subjects, in other words, in keeping with the general principles of Waldorf education. In what follows here, a detailed, comprehensive curriculum for this subject is presented for the first time. The topics listed as possible lesson content are geared towards giving the students generally manageable, age-appropriate material to work with. In other words, they are suggestions of material felt to be suitable, which has been tried out and arranged in a [complementary] sequence of graded steps. In view of the widely differing learning situations at individual Waldorf schools, the suggested material can be varied according to pedagogical need. The intention is to outline a curriculum in which the subject as taught is in tune with the higher aims of general education [1]. As such, it can serve as a model for how to establish such a subject along the lines of Waldorf education, or as a guide to socially relevant material for other subject areas (especially geography and history). Where a topic has strong cross-disciplinary connections this is indicated in the text (e.g. →geography). In general, close consultation, or even team-teaching, with colleagues from other subject areas – especially history, geography, native and foreign languages – is to be recommended.
[1] To deliver such a curriculum requires two periods per week from classes/grades 9 to 12. In reality, however, it often happens that only one period per week is available for social studies – and not all the year through. If it should not prove possible to grant this subject the necessary space on the timetable, then the curriculum can simply be used as a guideline for choosing and adapting the lesson material to the time available
Growing into the present
In the high school it is important for social studies to be a clearly distinguished subject, whereas in the middle school it is probably better to integrate social topics into established main lessons and subject areas – e.g. mathematics, history, nutrition, geography. In this way currently relevant topics can be dealt with either by giving a lesson a particular slant or by inserting a special thematic episode, and perhaps taking the opportunity to teach certain practical skills. On the one hand, this can bring the lesson content closer to the world of the students’ own experience, but it can also help them to grow into features of the world around them that they have hitherto either taken for granted or been unaware of. Since the aim here is for as high a degree of practical relevance as possible, descriptions of the workings of economic and social life should be based upon concrete phenomena.
The first opportunities for introducing social topics occur in class/grade 5 in conjunction with geography (→ geography (practical knowledge). In this year main lessons can begin to look at things in considerable detail, e.g. the life of a great river from its source to the sea: the economic contributions of the landscapes it flows through, the river itself with its harbours, canals, weirs, dams, power stations etc., the goods transported on the water-course – all this is described in vivid pictures.
In class/grade 6 the groundwork is laid for more active engagement with the world. What is presented in history about the technological achievements of the Romans or the people of the Middle Ages is a case in point. Geology also makes its contribution to this when it investigates mineral resources, salt, ores, and pre-industrial technology, e.g. the use of mill-wheels and hoists, including economic implications. The introduction of physics in this year also provides a framework for topics of socio-economic interest.
Fractions, algebra, and percentages can also be applied in very concrete ways when the basic forms of book-keeping and balance sheets are introduced in class/grade 7. Real-life connections with negative numbers can be drawn through considering, say, the $3,000,000 debt (with a 20-year repayment clause) incurred by the school community for a new building. The topic of percentage calculation can well be extended into other actual situations via issues such as credit, interest and repayments, even to the point of looking at critical contemporary issues (→ mathematics). It is also possible to establish connections to the formation of the first banks and world trade empires at the beginning of modern times. These are both important themes of this school-year’s history main lessons. This topic can then be further pursued when considering differences in the process of development between South and North America (àgeography). Another major thematic area concerns the production, processing and commercial distribution of every-day goods, such as yoghurt and chocolate. This is very closely related to the question of nutritional quality and basic principles concerning health and environmental awareness. Themes like this often crop up in the main lesson on nutrition. They are also very much in keeping with the United Nations programme on Education for Sustainable Development. In looking at early modern times the students’ eyes are also opened to the relationship between technological development and the working and living conditions of human beings.
The structure of the history main lessons in class/grade 8 follow this thematic line right up to the portrayal of the industrial revolution with its dramatic social consequences and the various attempts to ameliorate them (e.g. life-insurance, charitable foundations, unions). Thus in many large towns across Europe there will likely be a long-standing family firm (e.g. the Henschels in Kassel, or the Cadburys in Manchester), the lives and actions of whose members have had a tremendous effect upon the welfare of the community over generations. In the context of the New World, the biography of Thomas Edison opens up a host of concrete connections to contemporary issues, as well as to the topics of electricity and the electric motor in physics. In connection with this, the history of motorised transport since the end of the 19th century – traffic, factories, construction and maintenance of roads – could form the main theme of a further main lesson. A somewhat deeper line of investigation could be the extraordinary speed and scale of material progress in modern civilization, and whether the continual increase we have achieved in comfort, in the pace of life and in the command of space and distance has made people happier. Waldorf schools outside Europe and America will of course highlight different people and aspects.
In this final year of the class-teacher period there is a stated intention to lead the students into the present – and not only in history. With this in mind it is a good idea to encourage exploration of current political, economic and social issues, and this can best be done by introducing a discussion of the news as a regular feature of lessons. In addition, as indeed in the previous year, excursions can be undertaken to {view} factories and public works – a water treatment plant, a refuse disposal plant etc. – always with an eye for mechanisms that are very common but tend to be overlooked. “How does our modern civilisation actually work?” could be a theme running through a whole series of lessons geared towards strengthening young people’s ties to the world around them, and thus helping them towards confidence in life.
The aim in doing all these things is to arrive in the present through concrete experience, and thus have the feeling of being truly contemporary. To follow such a path through the middle school is to establish connections to the present in ever clearer outlines and to permeate it with awakening consciousness. In class/grade 8, then, this focus upon the present begins to take on the contours of a subject in its own right, until in class/grade 9 it emancipates itself from the other subjects as social studies.
Principles and general educational aims for classes/grades 9 to 12
A fundamental characteristic of development in adolescence is the challenge young people face of how to become active participants in contemporary life without just adapting to it. To bring this about, young adolescents have to become aware that people are actually able to shape and change things. The aim of social studies is, accordingly, to enable young people to become autonomous members of modern society. To this end, several areas of learning may be outlined:
Security through orientation: Knowledge and evaluation of the basic features of the modern political, legal, economic and general social order create an ability to deal with them in a confident, critical and practical way.
Individualisation of judgment: Evaluative consideration of ever more diverse and complex interdependencies in the field of social interaction helps to mature the faculty of judgment. The task high school students have is to turn the sensibility they had in childhood, which was largely influenced and determined by the world around them, into one of independent individuality, capable of weighing up a range of variables. The development of this ability can be encouraged one step at a time.
Ability to act responsibly: A well-developed faculty of judgement and knowledge of their social rights and duties, provide a firm foundation upon which young people can take an active role in society once they have come of age. Thus they are in a position to become citizens of the world, of the times, and, as free and responsible individuals, of the state. At the same time, however, as reflections of their own origins and cultural affiliations, they become creators of their own biography.
So, bearing in mind these basic perspectives, the aim of social studies may be summarised as follows:
Methodological considerations
Main theme: ideals of individuality and justice
At this age, in addition to the normal developmental challenges, young people now face new demands placed upon them by society: around age 15, they have reached the initial level of criminal liability for their actions. With this they have arrived at a significant legal and political age-threshold, beyond which they will increasingly be invested with further responsibilities, such as the right to vote in local elections. They should be provided with the necessary facts and underlying principles in preparation for these new steps in their lives. Awakening a lively interest in world affairs is an essential component of the work for this school year. Through discussions on future careers and goals the students can begin to form ideas about what they could or should do with their lives. With this goes a conviction that ideals are worthwhile, in spite of the fact that they may already have had personal experience of injustice. The pedagogical intention in this school year is to sharpen the students’ powers of judgment in connection with the aims and ideals of modern society (human and civil rights), thus furthering the process of individuation. One main way of approaching this is to portray and investigate, as concretely as possible, the lives of individuals who have dedicated themselves to some great political cause or social ideal; the students can then compile information on these activists in a variety of ways (reports, journals, essays, possibly even through personal contact).
Suggested lesson content
Media and information: If our aim is to direct attention towards the world at large, this requires a concerted look at our sources of information about current events – and how “the news” is processed. The following topics need to be dealt with:
Given the transitory nature of news coverage, it is important to observe the principle of following up on events and setting them in context, thus providing real substance for reflection upon the world.
Basic rights: In view of the students’ urge for independence and self-determination and their highly sensitive sense of justice, it is entirely appropriate to look at the subject of human rights. A sensible way of approaching this is to consider the fundamental ideals, and especially the polarity between freedom and equality, without going into the kind of detail that would be appropriate at a later age. These two basic political tendencies of the 20th century – reflected in liberalism and communism – can be viewed in connection with the class 9 history main lessons, and the dynamic tension between them clearly portrayed. To clarify the ideas that led to the formulation of human rights and the principles behind the separation of state powers, they can be viewed in contrast to the situation in various historical regimes (e.g. Louis XIV, National Socialism) and modern examples of centralised and paternalistic states. These ideas can also be evaluated and made concrete by looking at their role in the biographies of historical figures (→ History). On the one hand, this should all be done in terms of specific, real-life examples; on the other, it should provide concepts that young people can relate to.
The forming of political opinions and decisions: Much of what has been said above can be seen as revolving around the theme of how political opinions are formed both individually and collectively. For the purposes of lesson content, however, this means focusing on the activities of parties and parliaments. In class 9 the students are at the stage of learning how to engage in debate – perhaps advancing opinions contrary to those they have hitherto accepted from figures of authority such as parents or teachers. This is a field of discovery, perhaps even a kind of game, the subtleties of which they can begin to explore. This suggests that the following topics be covered in as experiential a way as possible:
Law: Getting to know one’s own position in relation to the law strengthens trust in the effectiveness of inner values in public life. Familiarity with the basic concepts, procedures and avenues of the legal system gives young people an insight into the intellectual pathways, by which the tortuous vagaries of human life are ordered and judged, and on which they might also model their own inner development.
In seeking to open up the sphere of law to the minds of young people, it is good to take advantage of their keen sense of justice by giving them concrete experience of it. This can be done through:
Social and political change: The biographies and initiatives of people who have been active in the service of ideals, and who have had to struggle against entrenched attitudes of the past or the present, may also serve as material for this topic (e.g. the movement for a Threefold Social Order, Robert Schuman as the herald of a post-national European order, modern NGO activists).
Human values: Starting from Kant’s reflections “On eternal peace” (or some other utopian text), the idea of a world federation encompassing the whole of humanity and the attempts to realise it in international organisations (e.g. the League of Nations, the United Nations, the International Court of Justice) can be presented and discussed.
Additional, cross-disciplinary projects, excursions etc.: Panel discussion involving election candidates from various parties or local officials, excursions to places of socio-historical interest, hands-on experience – during practicals on farms or in the workplace – which can include both idealistically- and commercially-run businesses.
Methodological considerations
Main point of focus: Basic political, legal and economic structures
Just as in the history main lessons, there is a clear shift of emphasis in social studies in grade 10. Whereas so far attention was centred upon ideas seeking realisation now or in the future and the extent to which they clash with the present state of things, for example in learning about revolutions in grades 8 and 9, now the focus is on those conditions that are essentially the same for all human beings. In grade 10, therefore, we turn our minds towards legal systems and how they came into being, including the geographical and economic circumstances that shaped social forms. In this way the students become conversant with the legal relationships between the various branches of government. In thinking these through and getting examples they are being prepared for entering the world of paid employment or using their political voice.
All these areas are rich fields for honing their skills in forming objective judgments based on causal logic and knowledge of the facts. The central insight emerging from this is that civilisation consists of structures created by human beings. These things are mostly new to 10th-graders and the new information can broaden their horizons. Any questions that arise should be dealt with in the light of actual events and problems of the day and then brought to a firm, conceptual conclusion.
From the suggested lesson contents the students should be able to derive objective standards by which to make up their own minds and evaluate their own actions; convictions based only on feeling may be factually unreliable. The process of ordering one’s own mind and of finding and justifying one’s own values is thereby encouraged. Methodologically this could involve concerted practice in looking at graphs, statistics and tables and assessing what they mean and the causal relationships they imply, or the analysis of case-studies.
Suggested lesson content
The legal system and the separation of state powers: The focus here is on the organisation of the legal system and the separate organs of state as ordained by the constitution of the country concerned. This involves consideration of the following topics:
Through this the students should learn no longer to simply react naively or emotionally to political events, but to question and analyse what lies behind them.
The electoral system and political participation: Elections and other modes of participation are now potentially open to the students and can already be taken advantage of to some extent. The following matters should therefore be considered in detail and discussed:
Basic structures of the economy and the world of work: This theme can be approached in two different ways:
The first is to forge a connection with the history main lesson. The latter deals partly with the fact that resource availability is dependent upon topography, and this features also in social studies, when out of the vast, cooperative, economic network by which our material needs are satisfied some examples of chains of production from raw material to consumer are highlighted. Within this context some basic economic concepts can be explained:
Looking at this from a temporal or a spatial perspective opens up links to other subject areas (→ history, geography).
The second avenue of approach arises directly from the students’ every-day lives. At this age they are often having their first experience of paid employment (e.g. part-time jobs, or even starting their own businesses). They should thus be equipped with what they need to enter this sphere of life in a well-informed and, therefore, self-confident way:
Such a series of lessons can be undertaken in conjunction with the industrial practical that is often done in grade 10. The preparing and reviewing of this practical can be fruitfully integrated into social studies lessons.
Alternative ideas of society: A counterpoint to the concentration upon existing social structures can come in the form of a consideration of alternative models of society, both historical and actual. Students of this age are often very keen to explore these, sometimes developing a long-standing interest and active involvement with such models. The associated danger of getting stuck in the one-sided ideology of seemingly simple truths can be countered through exploring a range of alternative social models, for instance:
Additional, cross-disciplinary projects, outings etc.: an excursion to the seat of government, local or on the state/national level; experience of the world of work through the industrial practical.
Methodological considerations
Main theme: questions of common humanity – world-wide solidarity and dignity
In keeping with the striking change the students often go through from the age of 17 to 18, social studies in class 11 begins to go more deeply into things than hitherto. The lessons are now more devoted to dialectical thinking and discussion, which incorporates individual distinctions, variable and alternative ways of thinking, subjecting them all to systematic comparison. Now more than before attention is given to the deeper psychological levels of social relationships. The question Parzival asks the Grail King, thus releasing him from his suffering: “Uncle, what ails thee?” (Parzival, XVI. 795, 29), which is the archetypal expression of human empathy in relation to the destiny and needs of another, can be taken as one of the leading questions of this school year. It is only now that the many-faceted “thou” question can take its place at the heart of social studies in an authentic way; its presence, whether explicit or not, can be felt, reflected and worked upon in a whole variety of contexts. A sense of the dignity of human beings and its expression in every form of inter-personal relationship can be built upon it, both in our immediate surroundings and in the media-made pathways of the “global village”. The themes for this year are therefore taken largely from the world within, that is, more strongly ethical and philosophical, although they do also include theoretical explorations. They are weighted in the direction of empathic understanding, of supporting individuation through independent enquiry and of establishing relationships with other individuals and with the community.
If the guiding light for this age-group is to develop a facility for dialectical discussion and for conducting conversations in an open, empathic manner, then the method eminently suited to this is that of working in pairs or in small groups, as well as in plenum. Looking at things from different perspectives, role-play exercises, and moderation of role-plays or discussions by the students themselves are all good ways of encouraging this. Developing tact and holding the right balance between discernment and empathy, may prove to be the most lasting features of this year’s path of learning.
Suggested lesson content
Human dignity and the balancing of conflicting rights: The ninth grade curriculum focused on human rights from a particular perspective. This time the central point of interest – arising from the question of individual identity – is the nature of social interaction: whether the way people relate to one another is an expression or a denial of human dignity, the typical ways in which human behaviour creates conflict situations, the shared experience of being different from everyone else – all these are central pre-occupations within the context of the individuation process. The fundamental issues of respect and dignity can be discussed in connection with the students’ every-day experience, and touch upon current topics of public discourse, e.g.:
Various categories of people in need are introduced: those suffering from an illness or some form of addiction, the handicapped, the very young, the aged, the poor – with the overall intention of looking at how the principle of respect for human dignity is applied in society by the state.
This can be followed by a critical appraisal of the central articles on human rights in the constitution of the country concerned or in the charter of the United Nations. This is a training exercise in the balancing of conflicting rights (e.g. freedom of opinion vs. the inviolability of human dignity) and in awareness of the discrepancy between ideal and reality (e.g. how do we define the sphere of private communication in the era of “social networks” and the National Security Agency.
As well as the wide range of possibilities this theme offers for cross-disciplinary cooperation[2], it can also provide a context for the preparation and review of the social practical which is normally done in class 11. Beyond this, however, there is a possibility deserving of particular attention, namely, that of working together with foreign language teachers on a theme which pervades all this material: the relationship between the familiar and the foreign. This could take the form of a small exhibition, featuring material on the following:
Political theory: The question of the philosophical thinking behind the different ways human beings have organized society can be mapped out through an introduction to political theory as shaped by thinkers from the Middle Ages up to the present. Here the focus is on the particular relationship between people and state, or the worldview in play at a particular time. Studying relevant texts and comparing and discussing the various philosophical positions demands and develops systematic and clear argumentation and dialectical judgment.
Social change: The concept of solidarity takes on life and practical significance when it is illustrated in terms of concrete examples of actual local events and aspects of social change, e.g.:
Economy: In a global economy, there is a growing social awareness of where and how things are produced. Ecological awareness is also growing. Every-day goods (e.g. textiles, mobile phones) are now normally assessed as to whether they have been produced and traded in socially and ecologically responsible ways. In keeping with this growth in awareness many consumers are realizing that everything has its price and that someone always has to pay it, and this calls up the general question of how to act in solidarity with a community, as formulated, for instance, by Steiner in the so-called “Social Motto”. Here the topics are:
Civil society and liberation movements: We can get a concrete idea of the development of a world-wide civil society by reflecting upon the work of NGO’s and relief organisations. The things they learn in these lessons are often directly connected to plans the students may have for getting involved in such overseas work when they leave school. In the ensuing discussions it may be useful to weigh up the strengths and weaknesses of such civic, purely voluntary work, on the one hand, and large, well-funded international organisations on the other (initiative vs. institution). In covering this subject, we can include:
Additional, cross-disciplinary projects, outings etc.: Social practical, planning of a charity project abroad as a class 12 trip, or possibly as a social practical for the class as a whole, a visit to the European institutions in Strasbourg, or, in the US, participation in the model UN, where students get together and act out delegation work of the many United Nations.
[2] This central existential question is quite clearly related to a large number of other subjects (biology, literature, history, foreign languages, ethics, religion)
Methodological considerations
The main focus: globalization and the individual – the interdependency of global developments in the economy, politics and culture: Teaching in grade 12 of a Waldorf school is primarily concerned with addressing and developing young people’s inner powers of cognition, empathy and creativity through a choice of themes that is as many-layered and interconnected as possible. The implication of this for social studies is that the interactions between economics, politics and culture and between individuals, others and environment become the guideline and training ground for the development of a refined faculty of judgment, which can now be confronted with the full complexity and interrelatedness of human society, to the extent that we are capable of understanding it. Navigating the many contradictions of modern life in a constructive way is a fascinating challenge indeed!
In addition, there are all the things they have to comply with now that they have come of age and are able to enter into employment contracts and take up their full political responsibilities. It is the job of social studies to ensure that all subjects in school contribute in making young people aware of this, not only within their immediate surroundings, but in relation to all the cultural and political connections they are involved in. And then there is the question of how to maintain awareness that you’re a global citizen, an individual with ties to the aforementioned connections. According to the fundamental principles of Waldorf education, individual identity should develop out of respect for the dignity and worldview of every person and out of one’s own informed and conscious action. Thus, social studies for students who have come of age should deliver perspectives and tools for this purpose. At the same time, the whole curriculum for this school year is cross-disciplinary in intention.
Methodologically speaking the task is to offer a diversity of approach, particularly for those themes which are cognitively demanding. This can include holistic, artistic or ethical-religious elements. Beyond this, although the teaching material is very cognitively oriented, it is important to rise to the challenge of not letting this push the realms of feeling and practical action out of the picture. This can be met by such things as staged thought experiments (on the subject, say, of money), or simulations and role-plays (based on a concrete case-study of some kind), including action strategies. Exploring a given situation in this way gives the students the opportunity to bring things to life which are often felt to be abstract, and to experience and reflect upon the interpersonal dynamics involved.
Suggested lesson content
Any theme one chooses to focus on should reflect awareness of global implications. Wherever one turns, one is faced with the fact that everything is connected to everything else in ways that are often hidden and unpredictable. This worldwide interconnectedness also plays out in international politics, which is inextricably linked up with the countless interactions of commerce, politics, and culture
International politics: The main theories involved here (above all, realism, institutionalism, liberalism) should be presented. Students should learn what philosophies stand behind these, using concrete examples, and be able to thoroughly question how they work out in practice, asking whether they stand the test of time, and how effective they are. The burning questions of every-day politics can thus be viewed within the context of larger systems and explanatory models. Various, persistently influential interpretive models (e.g. Huntington’s clash of civilisations, 1993) can also be critically examined. The diversity of factors and the distinctions needing to be taken into account in the major questions of foreign policy can be explored on the basis of leading examples of problem situations, e.g.:
Such reflections can then – based on investigation of actual regions of conflict – lead into the real challenges of world politics and current public debate.
Globalisation: Very closely interwoven with these urgent questions facing us today is the process of globalisation, which is chiefly to be viewed from an economic perspective. The focus could be on the world-wide acceleration, since 1989, of direct multiple linkages among national economies. Important points of departure here are:
The subject of competition arising from outsourcing is a clear example of something that calls the idea of the nation state into question. It also exposes the latter’s diminishing power in the face of the “global players” in world trade, and the scarcely intelligible influence of the “markets”, as well as the associated “democratic dilemma” of parliamentary systems.
Economic and monetary system: This subject also involves consideration of certain basics of the functioning of the world economy and the monetary system. Among the topics to be covered are:
In connection with a retrospective look at the history of money, and in cognisance of the complexity of the modern monetary system, the following points are worth considering:
A major line of thinking on the subject of the economic and monetary system is based upon the view that many social conflicts and ecological problems stem from the fact that capital and work (the factors of production) and environmental health and land (the elements supplied by nature) are all treated as commodities, and thus made subject to the twin imperatives inherent in the system, namely, supply and demand. This is how Steiner put it in 1919 in “The Social Future”. In relation to all this, he also argued, in the book of the same name, for the need to organise the relationship between human beings and the factors of production according to legal and factually-based agreements, independently of monetary value. Perspectives for a discussion on this are provided by:
Additional, cross-disciplinary projects, excursions etc.: A study-trip as a way of rounding off the work, or, on a much stronger note, a journey involving a hands-on social project as a grand culmination of social studies.
If applicable, the teaching of social studies in preparation for state examinations will follow the curricular requirements of the relevant authorities. The material already covered in the high school can be recalled and made use of, where appropriate.