Culture appears world-wide in diverse local and regional forms, which express the full range of human behaviour, thinking and creative action. Their areas of expression e.g. in the form of
rarely correspond exactly to political borders. It is not unusual for individual nation states to be home to different language communities, political persuasions, religions and economic systems. Moreover, these cultural territories are constantly open to the possibility of being either consolidated or transformed by means of exchange, invasion, migration, or even self-imposed isolation. Through the globalisation of trade and information technologies, through travel and migration, through global challenges such as the need to protect our biosphere, to contain violent conflicts, and to provide everyone with a secure livelihood, humanity now finds itself in the dramatic situation of having to pursue cross-cultural understanding without diluting diversity or imposing uniformity. Waldorf education shares this respect for cultural diversity, and while it is firmly committed to supporting its students in developing their own cultural identity, it also prepares them for respectful dialogue with people of other cultures. This obviously implies a fundamental rejection of any hierarchical ranking of cultures.
When the editors of this volume decided to translate the chapters on home language (expressed in German as “mother-tongue”) and history, thus placing them within the context of the international, i.e. inter-cultural, discussion of curricular issues, this was not done with the intention of exporting curricula written for the central-European, German-speaking cultural realm into other countries and cultures. After a long and painstaking discussion as to whether such a misunderstanding could arise, they came to the conclusion that a critical appraisal of the translations could provide the basis for developing the subjects of home language and literature, art appreciation/aesthetics and history according to the cultural perspective of the region or nation concerned. Furthermore, the curricula as written for the German-speaking realm provide a clear example of how lesson content and learning objectives can be matched to particular phases of development and thus support the process of individuation in the students. All this serves to underline the principle that the central task of education based upon understanding of the human being – whatever the subject matter – is to come to terms with the developmental demands inherent in the process of individuation.
Translator’s note: The original text is illustrated with German examples, both for grammar and literature. For this translation into English, the examples chosen are augmented or substituted by examples chosen from English and American curricula by the translators. Progressing through the grades, children grow more into their specific country or location, there will be a greater need to find topical and contemporary material. There remain many texts which have proven to be of universal significance, which, needless to say, may be translations into the home language. The examples given here are not meant to be exhaustive or universally applicable, they are chiefly inserted to anchor the text and illustrate the developmental points being made.
Language acquisition is a basic prerequisite for healthy development of the individual within society. As teachers, we have the fundamental task of helping the children appreciate their home language and master it in successive stages, becoming more conscious of its qualities and potential as they grow.
An essential feature of language acquisition is seen in the initial relationship between movement and speech. Steiner describes the interplay of uprightness, balance and the capacity for free movement that makes for language acquisition as a composite effect of the activity of the spiritual core of each human being: “It is the ego that lifts the human being into uprightness.” In achieving uprightness, the young child acquires the ability to articulate the sounds of speech, accompanied by movements and gestures.
In concurrence with various lines of linguistic research, Peter Lutzger sums the position up by saying “that there is a direct correlation between the coordination of hands and fingers and the acquisition of language” (Lutzker 1996: p. 140). From a comprehensive perspective, Steiner expresses it as follows: “Language is transposed movement and transposed balance (Steiner: GA 224, p. 117). So the effort of external orientation metamorphoses into an inner, linguistic orientation.
From this perspective, language is a means of expression which develops over time in a balancing act between self and world. In the process, language is shaped through a combination of widely differing elements: on the one hand, there is the interplay between speaking and listening, on the other hand there are two distinct elements which are at work in speech: a sculptural element that is involved in the forming of speech-sounds, and a rhythmic-melodic element, which infuses words and sentences with musicality. These two elements most clearly express themselves in consonants (sculptural), and vowels (musical). Finally, there are the two areas in which – each in its own way – language comes to its most characteristic expression: the one is the poetic, the other its structure and form, i.e. grammar. Grammar is contained within poetic expression, yet is also a realm of its own.
Language acquisition always occurs through the dynamic interplay of hearing and producing speech. As a rule, the richer the language children hear at home and in school, the stronger will be their own impulse to speak well. Out of the interplay between listening and speaking throughout their years in school, a linguistic reservoir is built up which each child will be free to draw on.
Since it is entirely natural for young children to absorb sounds and rhythms, their experience of language is greatly enriched by poems, verses and rhymes. Later on, in addition to lyrical poems, they become acquainted with ballads, artistically structured prose and, towards the end of the middle school, dramatic dialogue.
From class/grade 3 onwards, besides this pole of language represented by poetry and poetic prose, concerted attention is paid to the other pole, namely grammar (see Dühnfort 1987). Within this powerful polarity reside many further elements of language teaching, as, for instance, story-telling and recapitulation, writing, reading, spelling, expansion of vocabulary, and stylistic appreciation.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
From class one on there is a special focus upon the cultivation of language and speaking. The main lesson, both in its repetitions of rhythmic poems and in its narrative section, opens up many opportunities for pursuing this.
After the children have spoken the morning verse together at the start of main lesson, the rhythmic work begins. It usually entails something connected to the theme of the main lesson. Here singing and other musical activities alternate with recitation, for which poems for children are mostly used as material. Poems are chosen more for the standard of the writing than for how easy they are. These create the basis upon which an appreciation for the qualities of language can develop. Many different kinds of rhymes and verses can be accompanied by well-chosen gestures and movements – whole-body “orientation exercises”. In addition, age-appropriate speech exercises are practised to promote clear and correct pronunciation. These can also be accompanied by suitable gestures. Consulting with speech therapists and working with professionals who have studied speech formation will be a great help for the teacher.
Narrative material
The narrative section of the main lesson is an aspect of the general cultivation of language. In class one the teacher tells stories from the local culture’s store of (fairy) tales. In the German-speaking world, the language of the Brothers Grimm allows spiritual realities to shine through to an extent not found in other fairy tale renderings, and this probably accounts for the fact that they are widely used in translation all over the world. What is important here is that the teacher tell the story in this same style, thus making sure the tale is not told in a pedestrian or subjective way, which would trivialize it. The images contained in authentic folk and fairy tales are of inestimable value for the growth of the child’s inner life, but to elaborate this point would require separate and more extensive treatment [See, for example “The Wisdom of Fairy tales”, by Rudolf Meyer, or the many books on storytelling written by Nancy Mellon. JKS]. – Within the framework of the narrative section, the children retell in their own words what they heard on the previous day, and only when this has been reconstructed from memory does the teacher tell the next part.
Writing and reading
The writing main lessons concentrate on introducing the letters. Through the activity of writing, the child gradually develops a relationship to the written word. Most children then go through a seamless transition from writing to reading, assuming that the process is given enough time. – Steiner repeatedly stated how important it is for the development of the child that this process proceed slowly and with proper care.
In introducing writing, a twofold approach is taken, attention being paid both to sound qualities and to form. This is why the introduction of the letters is preceded by a main lesson of several weeks duration on what is known as form-drawing, in which straight and curved lines are practised in many variations. This lays the foundations for learning the forms of the letters. – It is entirely at the teacher’s discretion whether he or she begins with the consonants or the vowels. However, a clear distinction must be made between the fact that we use the vowels to express feelings, whereas the consonants tend to reflect the qualities of the surrounding world. The teacher must just have the ability to find a suitable image for each instance in turn. The thing is to convey to the children a correspondence between the shapes of the letters and the sounds they make.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
In grade 2 the basic character of what is called the rhythmic section remains the same. The poems become longer and more demanding content-wise and may also be done in the form of little narrative scenes. In keeping with the narrative material, it would be possible to recite fables or to create and perform little plays on St Francis or St Christopher. Here speaking in chorus could alternate with passages for individual speaking roles.
Narrative material
In grade two this consists of fables and legends. In animal fables the children take in images that tell of the foibles of human beings, such as envy, greed, selfishness, hubris etc. The concentrated conciseness of the language of fables creates astonishment in the children and invites a thoughtful conversation on what they have heard. It is best for this to take place the following day. – Legends tell about the ennoblement of certain individuals. The saint overcomes his shortcomings and weaknesses in his dedication to God and is therefore able to help his fellows and be an example to them. Legends are very different in style from fairy tales: the children are addressed – also in contrast to fables – in a more lyrical way.
Writing and reading
In grade 2, the work begun in grade 1 is continued and expanded. Lowercase letters are introduced, and it is at the teacher’s discretion to decide whether to introduce long-hand towards the end of the year. The focus is now on whole-word recognition, the analysis of words, practising writing easy words from memory on the blackboard, finding ways in which letters and sounds can be exchanged. – The teacher should pay close attention to which children are particularly reticent in such activities. If needed, the teacher should seek professional advice when children have specific challenges.
With the introduction of the small letters, the children change over from using wax crayons to coloured pencils, so that their writing can take on a clearer form. If they are using unlined pages, one way to help them could be by giving them guiding marks. The important thing is that they take delight in making their pages of writing as beautiful as possible, in other words, that they become intensely involved in the activity of writing. – The writing books thus become very precious possessions for the children, in that they can now write down poems, stories, riddles etc. They have, in effect, created their own little reading books, from which they can read aloud at home.
The first exercises in reading practice begin after the first writing main lesson in grade 2. It is a good idea to introduce a reader after a few months. By this time most children will be well on with the process of reading, and some will already be capable of reading fluently. The teacher should take every opportunity to stimulate the children’s interest and pleasure in reading, without, of course, putting undue pressure upon those who are not yet reading.
The first exercises in spelling should be designed such that there is a match between the written word and what the children hear, and they can therefore make sense of them; e.g. doubling of vowels or consonants etc.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
In the course of class three the children go through a major change. They develop a much clearer sense of their own individual selfhood, and this sometimes appears quite clearly in their behaviour. Because of this shift, they begin to feel more of a sense of separation. This has the effect of making them gradually feel cut off from their surroundings. They look on the world with a new detachment, calling the familiar into question. The curriculum meets this new developmental step in a variety of ways.
Narrative material
In class 3 attention is concentrated on stories from the Old Testament. The powerful language of the creation story of humankind, nature and the heavens can be like a steady anchor point, helping the children with the deep questions they have at this stage of development. It is at the discretion of the class teacher whether to take the stories as far as those of Noah, Abraham and Moses. A second thematic thread emerges from the main lesson on trades and crafts: in a way that is at once true to life and imaginative, stories are told about the lives of various craftsmen.
Grammar
Class 3 sees the beginning of formal grammar teaching. It is advisable to place the main lessons dealing with this in the second half of the year. By then most of the children will have gone through the above-mentioned developmental stage. It is only by virtue of going through this that children have any possibility at all of becoming conscious of the grammatical structures they already carry within them. For Steiner it was a matter of principle that grammar be taught in an engaging and artistic way (Steiner 1975: GA 300b, p. 300f.). There is no question at this stage of learning the official grammatical terms, Latin or otherwise, but much more of having an elemental experience of grammatical qualities. In the first main lesson it is best to begin with the grammar of sentences. We work with the various kinds of sentence – statement, command, exclamation and question – such that the children first experience them and then characterise, distinguish and invent names for them. If as a first step we take the more concrete terms for sentence types suggested by Steiner, we thereby turn the children’s attention in a direction which can arouse their interest. They become alert to the intonation, emphasis and melody of sentences, and thus develop a sensitivity to the different sentence types.
The second main lesson, then, deals with the three main parts of speech. Here also it is best to begin by avoiding the usual terms of noun, adjective and verb. To speak of naming-words, describing-words and doing-words is likely to make them more understandable for the children. They experience how with naming-words we distinguish ourselves from things in the world, how describing-words then say what they are like, and how with doing-words we actively connect with them. An artistic way to arrive at such grammatical experiences could be through specially written scenes where the children can act out, say, a quiet noun or a restless verb, perhaps combined with exercises in the qualities of colour combinations, for example, from the more contained blue to the more active red.
Through this approach children experience grammar as something they are involved in, which expresses their relationship to the world.
It is important that the examples the teacher uses in introducing the sentence types and the parts of speech are derived from the children’s immediate surroundings and every-day experience.
Writing and reading
Spelling now comes more to the fore. Clear and distinct speaking and attentive listening are essential for correct spelling. Thus we do listening exercises in learning to distinguish between the long and short vowels. Rhyming words which the children particularly enjoy are well suited to this purpose and encourage the children to find their own rhymes. Furthermore, the children need to learn that, to a large extent, spelling rests upon convention, in the sense of agreements among people, and that they simply have to know these.
Spelling practice, however, is still kept separate from whatever texts of their own the children may have spontaneously written, such as letters, stories or descriptions of personal experiences. When they are engaged in that, their joy in writing should be encouraged and be given free rein without any concern for proper spelling.
Next to reading aloud, silent reading is now practised more and more.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
The poems used in the rhythmic section are chosen to be in keeping with the theme of each main lesson. Thus, for instance, in connection with the local geography main lesson, poems about landscape or written in the local dialect could be used. In tune with the story material recommended for this year (Nordic Mythology – though it is not unusual for teachers in other parts of the world to include comparable local material) it would seem appropriate to recite passages from the Edda. Here the children meet alliterative verse with its special kind of rhythm, which is not driven by end-rhymes, but by alliteration among the key words of each line. The impulse of will that lives in this metre is something that should come to expression in the manner of its recitation.
Narrative material
In order to tell the creation myth from the Edda the ground needs to be prepared very carefully. The children should be primed to experience the mighty images of this myth as different perspectives of one and the same great process of creation. Having made this beginning, it is now possible to continue with the whole saga of the Nordic gods and heroes. Other stories can also be chosen from a variety of sources to fit in with or follow on from this. [Within the German context Till Eulenspiegel stories are here recommended; teachers sometimes augment the Norse myths with stories from the Finnish epic Kalevala. In North America, some teachers may have included Western Pacific Native American stories which have similarities with the Norse myths, featuring the coyote instead of the Fenris Wolf; In South Africa and elsewhere material from Betty Staley’s collection of African stories, “Hear the Voice of the Griot” have also been used. Norse Myths, however continue to be used in most schools. The 4 stress alliterative stave rhyme of the Edda and Anglo-Saxon poetry also meets the children’s developmental needs.]
Grammar
With the crossing of the so-called Rubicon the child steps into a different way of inhabiting time and space. In grammar this process is underscored by addressing the tenses, i.e. the temporal forms of verbs, and looking at prepositions. While in grade 3 the verb was experienced as the expression of activity and was practised only in present forms, now the focus is on how it changes into the forms of different tenses. In doing this the teacher should constantly remind him- or herself that there are no absolutely watertight rules and categories here. Thus there is an opportunity to play with the qualities of present, past and future. What is finished, complete, what is being presumed, what is possible, probable or certain in relation to the future? Here grade 4 pupils have diverse opportunities to explore their feeling for language, to expand, exercise and become more aware of it. It is possible to introduce all the various tenses, if it is not too much for the children. Otherwise, such tenses as future II or pluperfect can be held in reserve until class 5. All these tenses will have particular “pet” designations in whatever language we are working in. The teacher should consult with foreign language colleagues as to exactly when the Latin terms should be introduced. As long as the three forms of tense are broadly familiar, the children will be able to do worthwhile exercises in changing texts from one tense into another. It is also perfectly fine to take a playful approach to the conjugation of verbs.
Prepositions can be approached as ways of making relationships to things (i.e. nouns) precise (e.g. across the street, near the school). Apart from indicating where, prepositions can also indicate when (e.g. in four days), or how (e.g. in a beautiful way). Discovering the large number of different ways prepositions can be used is something the children enjoy, and this further strengthens their sense for the workings of language.
A first encounter with what will later become the concepts of subject, object, indirect object etc. can come through the attempt to answer riddles: who …? whose …? to whom …? etc.
Writing and reading
Writing compositions, descriptions of personal experiences and letters continues. With the growing awareness of grammar, increasing attention is directed towards getting the spellings of the various forms of nouns and verbs right. Through a variety of exercises the children can practise applying their growing sense of what is correct (see Gabriele Böttcher: Die bunte Feder. Entdeckungen an der Sprache. Kassel 2011).
Longer texts are now used for reading practice, with particular attention on fluency and emphasis.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
With the beginning of class 5 many children enter a period of renewed harmony between their mental and physical development. This harmony is seen in the way inner and outer flexibility go together. In a spirit of graceful innocence, the children can throw themselves wholeheartedly into the work, are eager to learn, and hungry to be met and challenged.
The children are thus ripe for poems and texts that meet these expectations in terms of meaningful content and artistic-rhythmic quality. There is a wide range here of everything from ballads to lyrics to texts from the main lesson on Ancient Cultures: e.g. the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, the Vedas, Sumerian, Mesopotamian and Egyptian hymns and prayers etc. (see Lindenberg 1991; need other refs. N. S.). When the historical scene then shifts to that of classical Greece, the hexameter rhythm corresponds to the graceful ease of children at this age.
Narrative and reading material
In class 5 the narrative and reading material comes initially from the main lesson on Ancient Cultures (Gilgamesh, Isis and Osiris, Buddha etc.) and subsequently from the copious world of Greek mythology. Steiner suggested that at the end of this year the teacher should narrate some “scenes from the Middle Ages”, in order to bring in some motifs, which will re-appear a year later in history lessons.
Grammar
In view of the children’s mental agility and eagerness to communicate (as characterised above) combined with the obvious presence of a newly awakened power of understanding, grammar at this age can begin with explorations in the realm of feeling which can then be rendered more conscious. Thus the phenomena of subject, object etc., which were touched on in class 3 or 4 can now assume clearer and more precise forms. This involves finding names for them. Following this method of going from experiencing to naming makes the grammatical concepts that have thus been learned more immediately meaningful and true to life than the conventional terms, which will come later.
In a similar way, broaching the topic of sentence structure leads to the discovery that a sentence must have at least two basic parts: subject and predicate. The basic sentence can then be augmented by an object, a determinant of place or time or some other kind of addition. Following on from this, the children can be led into experience of the interesting and mysterious phenomenon of the “It is …” sentence (as in “It is raining” etc.).
If there is then a second grammar main lesson dealing with active and passive voice, the pupils experience how the subject takes on a completely different role – in the passive voice the subject is still the subject, but is acted upon “from the periphery”. A further topic can then form the groundwork for grammar in the following year: in working with direct and indirect speech, the important thing is to awaken an awareness of when the person speaking or writing is uttering their own thoughts and observations, and when they are expressing those of another person – in direct speech. Such an experience can be a great help, then, in approaching the topic of the conditional (or subjunctive) in class 6. In association with this topic, further practice in the use of punctuation is pursued.
Composition, both oral and written
For the purpose of writing essays the class 5 main lessons offer a rich and stimulating field of possibilities: recapitulations and descriptions from those on history and nature study invite longer pieces of writing. But if the first business letters or reports, for instance, in the context of class excursions and the like, are being formulated, the aim would be more one of conciseness and clarity.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
In grade 6 the students begin to be much more pre-occupied with the growth of their bodies, while in the mental sphere becoming more concerned with causal explanations. To this tendency to become more earthbound language lessons respond by beginning work on ballads. In the English-speaking realm, and in world literature generally, there is a vast treasure-house of ballads, both traditional and literary. They portray the dramatic dynamics of human destiny.
Narrative and reading material
The narrative and reading material is taken from the history main lessons, which go from Roman Antiquity via the Great Migration right up to the spread of Islam. If the class-teacher follows Steiner’s suggestion of including scenes from more recent history, this will introduce themes which will receive fuller treatment in the following year. There is also the possibility here, of course, that in other parts of the world, for instance, Africa or China, the emphasis will be placed upon different areas of world history.
Grammar
Having learnt how to use direct speech in grade 5, the students can now turn to indirect speech, which will involve moving from the indicative to the “subjunctive” mood. Whereas the indicative form can be used for stating objective matters of fact, the subjunctive has more to do with expressing subjective opinions and observations. In many languages there will be an actual subjunctive form, while in others, particularly English, “subjunctive mood” will normally be indicated in other ways, including the conditional forms of tenses. The distinction between indicative and subjunctive mood can be practised, for instance, by role-playing the giving of evidence in court cases. The students will quickly perceive the difference between saying what wasthe case, or what was alleged to have been the case, thus developing a feeling of personal responsibility for whether things should be expressed in a more indicative or “subjunctive” way. Again, the awareness of this distinction can be brought home by doing little scenes portraying real-life situations, which will doubtless also provide ample opportunity for comedy (see Röh 2007, need other refs.).
In the second grammar main lesson things move onto a new level. Whereas in grade 3 it was a question of attending to the correctness of language, now, at the age of 12, the emphasis is upon the beauty of language. This involves looking at how beauty of expression can be improved by introducing grammatical subtleties (e.g. avoiding repetitive structures – like “and then” in reporting on things - by using different conjunctions, use of participial phrases and gerundives to increase “flow”, and discovering that in certain contexts an “ing” word can be a “noun” and a “verb” at the same time etc.) Later in grade 8 the focus will shift again towards experience of the power of language. The aim is to encourage students to bring their growing powers of discrimination to bear upon language.
Composition, both oral and written
For composition exercises, as well as writing comprehensive recapitulations of historical narratives and descriptions of the natural phenomena dealt with in nature study main lessons, practice is given in concise formulations of physics experiments. Giving oral presentations – meaning that they are not read, but freely spoken – to the class on topics chosen within the context of the various main lessons is also an essential part of the work.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
With their growing sense of personal identity this age-group displays a correspondingly increasing interest in the world and in what it means to be human. The pedagogical counterpart of the spirit of discovery characteristic of this phase of inner turmoil are narratives and poems which reflect the transformation of consciousness that ushered in the modern era. Such “inner” explorations provide the students with ways of conceiving the existential drama of human destiny. As an example from among the English “classics”, S. T. Coleridge’s “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” may be mentioned, but [world literature contains a wealth of material with the qualities required here. N.S.]
Narrative and reading material
In keeping with the newly-awakened interest in the world and its people, the narrative and reading material for this year includes stories of the lives of extraordinary individuals, as well as descriptions of other countries and peoples. In this way understanding is opened up for other cultures, together with possible new ways of understanding oneself. [An example of this can be the life of Joan of Arc, which can be done in the form of a play. In other circumstances, teachers have chosen comedies such as Plautus’ Menaechmi, a play about twins who are reunited, a profound theme, but treated with a light touch].
Grammar
To the extent that the students are now capable of sensitive discernment, the teaching of grammar can deal with more complex matters. The aim, namely, to find ways of expressing wishes, wonder and admiration, and to explore the grammar of such expressions, initially requires a strong inner activity. If we succeed in getting the students to express “something they wish for” or “something that they admire”, then the structures they use to say these things can be compared and clearly discerned. This takes us firmly into the territory of the conditional, the “subjunctive” and the modal verbs. Also, the need class 7 students have to test the limits of their world can be touched on by this chapter of grammar: if they have realised the range of feeling nuances in wishing, wonder and admiration, then they will have seen that it’s only a small step from wishing to immoderation and fantasy, and from wonder and admiration to idolatry and morbid fascination.
The workings of more complex sentence structures are made plain and illustrated using sentence diagrams. This involves the students in perceiving the dynamic and logical relations between main and subsidiary clauses and composing their own examples. It also affords opportunities for practising punctuation.
Composition, both oral and written
Class 7 can be offered new challenges as regards composition writing. At a teachers’ meeting Steiner once made a spontaneous suggestion for class 7: “Set topics such as ‘The steam engine, emblem of human strength’, and follow it with: ‘The steam engine, emblem of human weakness’. One after the other, just like that.” (Steiner 1975: GA 300b, p. 84 ) Although we might not take this up word for word, the methodological indication is clear: the students are challenged to view something first in one, and then in the opposite way. In this way they are practising overcoming one-sided attitudes, while at the same time thinking their way into the opposite standpoint. Language classes – in connection with the chemistry and physics main lessons – can also usefully be devoted to practising exactness and clarity in the writing of descriptions of experiments.
Guidelines and suggested lesson content
At the threshold of adolescence the students experience the dying away of the language of childhood, and thus begins for them an existential search for their own voice and their own mode of personal expression. To support them in finding this new voice is the motivation behind the choice of texts and poems in this school year.
The choice here depends partly on the perceived predispositions of the class and partly on the predilections and capabilities of the individual teacher. But it can be made from among the whole range of literature from older, “classical” writers to more recent poets and authors. The main thing is that what is chosen reflect the dynamic between the highest human ideals and the claims of earthly necessity in suitably artistic language.
Narrative and reading material
The selection here is now much more concentrated upon biographies of individuals that grade 8 students will readily identify with. Hearing about personalities in various epochs of world history, right up to the present, who put their whole being into the events of their time, gives the students ample opportunity to do this. [It is recommended also that extracts from the works of such major individuals be taken as material for reading and study NS]. [For this age group, Steiner emphatically recommends tackling Schiller’s historical treatises dealing with the history of the 30 years war, the Dutch war of independence from Spain, and recommends a treatise by Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Outline of a Philosophy of a History of Man. He gives teachers the challenge to introduce students to their lofty language, suffused with idealism, but without applying undue pressure. The scope for choice here is very wide. From the pens of statesmen and women, from philosophers, poets, artists and scientists have flowed words of inspiration and idealism across Europe, the United States and indeed the whole world. High ideals have also been expressed in novels, such as “A Tale of Two Cities” or “Oliver Twist” by Dickens. The choices made here will be a combination of local context, the teacher’s predilections and the needs of the class.] In this way the students will feel themselves taken seriously in their own higher humanity. Through becoming attuned to the perhaps strange sounding language, they may also come to realise that by entering a new realm of language they can also enter a new realm of thought. Such an expansion of their literary experience grants them the potential, then, to meet other examples of poetic and literary prose with different standards and abilities. [In biographies, eighth-graders can span a whole range, from Eleanor of Aquitaine to Abigail Adams. Some may choose Leonardo da Vinci, others captains of industry like Henry Ford, or inventors like Edison. Students have even done presentations on Steve Jobs or Malcolm X. In literature, they feel elevated by the social idealism of Dickens, or the inspiring example of Helen Keller (The Miracle Worker, the play by William Gibson) or Anne Frank (biography and/or play adaptation). In recitation, it is obvious how language can work on them, a prime example being the Gettysburg address, by Abraham Lincoln, or the ‘I have a Dream” speech, by Martin Luther King.JKS]
If it is the normal thing for grade 8 to mark the end of their time in the middle school by performing a play, this provides an opportunity to bring together all the levels of language previously worked on. Through his or her identification with role and plot, each student can achieve a deeper relationship with language through the character’s lines. In performances, this can be received by the community and thus be further strengthened. Finding an echo like this, the language experience will work more strongly and has the potential to awaken new aspects in the character of the growing adolescent. Whether a play is chosen from drama literature, or whether the teacher elects to try his or her hand at writing one, will depend upon the pedagogical needs of the class and the teacher’s own capabilities. [In line with what is covered in history , frequently chosen literary works in the US include: To Kill a Mockingbird , by Harper Lee; Roll of Thunder, Hear myCry, by Mildred D Taylor, and Across Five Aprils, by Irene Hunt. JKS]
Grammar
Having worked in previous years on the correctness and beauty of language, the challenge for the students now is to develop a sense of the effect language has on other people and how it does this. Steiner’s recommendation to focus on the “power we have in life through language” (Steiner 1987: GA 303, p. 226) is essentially aimed at upholding respect for the freedom of others: does a speaker leave it up to his interlocutor to make up her own mind by using a “subjunctive” form, or does he put her on the spot by using the indicative? Does he use an imperatively declarative speech gesture, or an inquiring one? [The examples just given are particularly applicable to German. For English one could think of the difference between saying “Look at this” versus “Would you mind taking a look at this”; or the subtle differences between using “shall” and “will”, as in the neutral “I will return” and the determined “I shall return“. Another typically English language trait to bring to students’ attention is the understatement. Eighth-graders particularly savor such nuances. For other languages the examples will be different again. JK S]. Studying the power of language can also mean demonstrating how certain habitual grammatical usages can be manipulative.
A further, particularly appealing topic in grammar also deals with interpersonal language: the aim is to look at different kinds of style as they appear even in the structure of sentences and to take the first steps in applying them. A first conscious encounter with what are known as the temperaments can be a way of approaching this aim. This is done by describing simple, every-day situations, to which different people react in different ways. In this way the student can get a feel for the character of each of the four temperaments. If as a next step, the style of language used in each case is successfully characterised, surprisingly clear distinctions appear in everything from the choice of parts of speech to the structure of sentences. (see Röh 2007). [An obvious starting point will be the correlation between the temperaments and the different types of sentences: Declarative (phlegmatic); imperative (choleric), exclamatory (sanguine), and interrogative (melancholic) JKS] A third step would consist in searching through texts and speeches for examples of what have been discerned as the typical features of the melancholic, choleric, sanguine or phlegmatic style of language (see Dühnfort 1987). Through such an exploratory process the students have yet another experience of the diversity of ways there are of building sentences – this time from a different direction.
Composition, both oral and written
Among the new challenges in grade 8 is that of preparing a written project on a carefully chosen subject and presenting it before the class and parents. The variety of main lessons for this year constitute a vibrant source of inspiration for suitable topics for a long piece of writing. For spelling practice, unprepared dictations, graded for difficulty according to the needs of the class, can be done from time to time. Prepared dictations will be longer. More difficult punctuation rules can also be discussed and practised.
In each school year there are normally two main lesson blocks scheduled for this subject. In what follows they will be referred to as the first and second main lesson. The sequence chosen here for presentation demonstrates that it is one which has proven its worth for many colleagues. This does not, however, imply that things must be done in this way. In addition to the main lessons, the timetable usually allots this subject two running lessons per week, all the year through (although this number can vary). These lessons are used for the study of literary texts, for practising writing and rhetorical skills, and for introducing study techniques.*
Translators’ note: in addition to high school chapters, which discuss methodological considerations for each high school class and indicate main lesson blocks as well as aims for writing, the online edition has been expanded by relevant excerpts from John Wulsin’s “The Spirit of the English Language”. The excerpts are inserted as a separate unit after these chapters. The chapters below only give a shortened indication of teaching material relevant to German schools. Apart from John Wulsin’s book, which shows how the Waldorf curriculum dovetails with the development of the language, many extremely valuable suggestions can be found in the works of his colleague David Sloan “Stages of the Imagination; working dramatically with adolescents” and “Life Lessons” (AWSNA Publications).
Methodological considerations
In most countries the entry into class 9 marks the beginning of the students’ high school career [though this is not the case everywhere – in South Africa, for instance, high school begins with class 8]. This means that in place of the “universal teacher” they had in primary school, namely, their class teacher, main lessons are now conducted by specialist teachers. The subjects they teach and the materials and methods they use are mutually enhancing and organised in terms of the developmental profile of each particular age-group and the pedagogical intentions associated with it.
The class 9 language and literature main lessons are built around a recognition of the phase of development the students are going through. They deal, on the one hand, with material, themes and motifs which are intended to help them begin the process of forming their own views on the ideals of modern humanity. On the other hand, they also seek to show the students how the inevitable discrepancies between ideal and reality can be treated with humorous detachment and without undermining idealism in any way. In this manner the students can also learn that it is possible to take a similarly detached view of their own emotions and strong opinions.
It is safe to assume that, as a side-effect of puberty, this age-group is likely to display increased subjectivity and emotionality, which finds expression as a strong inclination to take a judgmental attitude to life in general. This often takes the form of an idealistic reaction to ethical questions, where the young people feel that their social milieu does not match up to the fundamental demands of their ethical ideals. Their emotional perceptions are also likely to be tinged with idealism, especially where friendship and love are concerned.
Suggested lesson content
First main lesson
[For German it is recommended that specific authors from the Enlightenment be presented to the students in biographies and through excerpts: Goethe, Schiller, Herder. Following on from the methodological considerations above, 9th graders’ penchant for strong swings between polarities are met by an emphasis on clear, down-to-earth observation, practised wherever possible. History main lessons focus primarily on modern times, so even though practices in different countries may vary widely, literature will reflect modern-day consciousness. American teachers used to read Melville’s Moby Dick, with special focus on specific passages. This is in line with Steiner’s emphasis on choosing truly inspired texts, with language that awakens the (oft hidden) idealism mentioned above and continues the choice of idealistic texts and biographies mentioned for the middle school. So the content of the 1st main lesson is likely to vary from country to country, and from language to language. It is highly probable that any literary tradition will feature authors and contain material perfectly capable of meeting the pedagogical needs of grade 9. For further concrete examples, please see John Wulsin’s suggestions for grade 9. Also, not included but highly recommended, David Sloan, “Stages of Imagination”, and ”Life Lessons”, AWSNA publications. JK S plus N. S.]
Second main lesson
Whereas the first main lesson displayed a firm emphasis upon the playing out of ideals in human life, the second one tends more towards dealing with human shortcomings and idiosyncrasies as they are portrayed in the works of literary humourists. In order to give as full a picture as possible of the polarities of the human soul it is advisable also to contrast comedy with tragedy. Thus the title “Laughing and Crying” suits this main lesson better than the one it is often given, namely “Humour”. [US schools simply call this block “Comedy and Tragedy”] (and it’s up to the teacher to bring in laughing and crying. JKS] As regards the comic side of things, it is not just a question of deriving the criteria of comedy from analysing texts, but far rather of coming to the realisation that humour is one of the driving forces in the formation of the human personality. The discovery of the change in perspective which is behind every instance of humour can create the ability to take a more detached, easy-going view of things. Laughter is the means by which the individual comes to terms with the sudden perception of apparent incongruity. Examples here can be found in all branches of literature – epics, comedies, short stories, anecdotes, farces, sketches etc. Both reading such material and creative writing inspired by it are a training in the sense of style. The (often tragic) biographies of comic authors and comedians can also be taken into the mix. It is equally important to look at aspects of tragedy, as well as the area where the tragic and the comic verge upon one another in tragi-comedy. Sympathy and tears are the polar counterparts of laughter, and both reactions can be seen as human attempts to respond to shocking events.
This concern with the aesthetics of laughing and crying, humour and tragedy can serve to awaken an awareness of the necessarily polarised nature of reality, but also of the possibility of reconciling the opposing tendencies. This can enable young people to begin the process of modifying their absolute attitudes when it comes to real life demands.
Writing and other language work
In addition to the work on literature, the main lessons are also concerned with the development of the students’ language capabilities and facility for argumentation. Learning how to make grammar serve the purposes of style, which was begun through various exercises in the middle school, can now move into the area of varying the tone of expression by means of word choice and syntax. This needs to be done in consultation with foreign language teachers, and also involves continuing attention to spelling and punctuation. Narrative (“subjective”), descriptive (“objective”) and persuasive compositions are practised in equal proportions (atmospheric evocations, descriptions of paintings and experiments, tables of contents, summaries of written texts and class discussions, protocols, statements of opinion and commentaries). Compositions can be derived from literary models. The students’ stylistic abilities can also be honed in the production of their own texts.
Within the ambit of oral work in main and running lessons are included such things as conversations on a set theme, dialogues and discussions. They should all involve attention to argumentative coherence and consistency in thinking. Formal presentations (talks) by students can also be part of the picture.
For the purposes of recitation, the poetic material of the main lessons offers an abundance of options.
The biographies of historical personages can be taken as suitable talk themes. Here instruction should be given on how to conduct research, organise material and prepare a presentation.
It is also a good idea to make a beginning in media literacy. This entails a survey of the uses and possible effects of various modern media. This could begin with a systematic exploration of modern print media. The aim is to become familiar with various kinds of print media (newspaper, magazine, subscription journal, tabloid etc.), and to learn to distinguish between the sorts of texts typically found in newspapers (report, lead article, commentary, interview, satirical column, notes etc.).
Methodological considerations
A central task for this year is the development of coherent thinking, rationality, argumentative rigour and conceptual clarity. This is intended to give the students a new and firmer grounding in themselves, for at this age (on average 16) they are likely to be experiencing doubt and confusion in relation to the unquestioned assumptions they have been living by up to now. Questioning these normally goes hand in hand with a notable distancing from parents. “Identification with the self” forges ahead, the feeling of independence grows, but also its price, loneliness.
While they expect an increase in knowledge, the students also have an inherent need for the insights arising from this newly acquired knowledge to provide them with guidance, and with the language to express this process of re-orientation in precise terms. This can lead to their experiencing a crisis of language capability. Words seem to be no longer - and not yet - capable of adequately expressing the deeper dimensions of inner experience and the finer points of knowledge.
[In an attempt to provide the required orientation here, the main lessons seek to give a survey of the possible origins and history of what might be called the poetic principle or poetic element in language. This was Steiner’s recommendation, resulting in a generally accepted practice of devoting one block to “The Elements of Poetry“ and another block on “The Evolution of the Mother Tongue”, which many schools call: “History through Language”, or “The Word”, as in South Africa. This can be approached and organised in a number of ways, according to the profile of each particular high school – in terms of the constellation of colleagues, the inter-relations among faculties and the pedagogical concept being followed. Schools often combine the 2 blocks. N. S. and JKS]
Suggested lesson content
[The general aim is to use certain ancient materials to yield insights into the history of (the home) language and the phases of human development it encompasses.]
For the 1st block, within a German context, excerpts from the Edda, Icelandic sagas, the Hildebrandlied, and the Nibelungenlied are recommended; and for the 2nd block, the birth of Greek tragedy, with an emphasis on Sophocles’ Oedipus and Antigone, and including Aristotle’s classical explanation of the effect of tragedy on the human soul by taking us through stages of shock, empathy, and catharsis. Developmentally, 10th-graders are ready to take a step back as it were after dwelling mainly in modern times during grades 8 and 9. In texts of earlier times, be they from ancient Greek or from Anglo-Saxon, Indian or African times, developmental steps of humankind should become palpable for them: conflicts arising because a protagonist leaves the protection of the home or clan surroundings or goes against accepted laws. In Anglo-Saxon times, literature reflects the inner turmoil which arises when a protagonist has to deal with conflicting loyalties, the soul-cries of loneliness, the agonies of the hero who fights evil monsters (the Seafarer, Beowulf). In Greek drama, Antigone goes against the law when her conscience tells her she has to bury her brother. Oedipus is tormented by the punishments meted out by the gods against his whole family. Teenagers will get a conscious handle on this as they learn concepts like fate, destiny, revenge, forgiveness, treason, or are helped to understand “mythological” and modern consciousness, etc. [Here, the reader is once more referred to the account given by John Wulsin, which brings home both the story of linguistic development and the way it dovetails with adolescent development. Finally, it should be mentioned that the German account also stresses the uses and misuses of both poetic techniques and mythology and mythic imagery in political ideologies, advertising etc. JKS and NS]
Writing and other language work
In the form of discursive essays and debates the students can sharpen their skills in argument. This involves having the requisite critical awareness to be able to distinguish argumentative strategies from rhetorical flourishes. Interpretational analysis of fictional texts can begin with character studies. The main lesson on poetics (if there is one) offers abundant opportunities for becoming acquainted with methods of text analysis and interpretation.
The 10th grade class play can be incorporated in the drama block by performing a Greek tragedy such as Oedipus or Antigone in one of the many excellent translations into English.
Novels and stories from world literature can be taken as topics for individual presentations.
[There is also great scope at this age for creative writing, and a source-book of ideas for this that can be highly recommended is “Sing me the Creation” by Paul Matthews (Hawthorne Press). N. S.]
Methodological considerations
The work of this year matches a growing disposition towards empathic, dialectic and aesthetic judgment. The first two are developed and sharpened as students learn to appreciate and weigh up disparate standpoints. Aesthetic judgment will be furthered when students are given tools to distinguish archetypal creative principles such as Apollonian and Dionysian. In practical terms this means schooling perception for the subtleties and different levels of the worldview expressed in the text/poem under consideration. Feeling one’s way into characters of literature and working with aesthetically enhanced language are essentially a refining of the ability to perceive and identify with otherness. Studying the biographies of poets can open the eyes to the desperate circumstances behind many a work of literature, and with eyes thus opened, the connection between a poet’s life and work becomes a fundamental question for the students. As a consequence, lessons will focus on the exploration of inner worlds, the process of individual growth and change, and with that comes reflection on one’s relationship to others. Various approaches to textual analysis are introduced with the intention of demonstrating that each can be used where appropriate, thus avoiding any dogmatic adherence to one method. Opportunities for the students to develop their own individual style are offered in the form of assignments such as philosophical discussions or essays.
Class 11 students will often be found to have developed a subtle sensitivity to the mental and social climate around them. Contemporary events are no longer simply judged in terms of their personal ideals, but are increasingly seen in terms of “what can I do to change them”. The search for their own identity manifests in an increased degree of introversion, which often goes together with a calmer, more realistic and sensitive power of judgment and a readiness to take on responsibility. This new level they have entered can be grasped as a wonderful opportunity. The students now have a new perception of their own biography. This interest is likely to express itself in contrary ways: on the one hand, there is a desire to know about the past, right back to early childhood experiences and upbringing, on the other, the enquiry is directed towards the future, conceived of as a product of their own intentions and as a result of openness to the other. This also manifests in a growing wish for new perspectives and insight which can help them to be both responsible and take charge of their own lives.
Suggested lesson content
First main lesson
The central theme is “Parzival” the epic romance by Wolfram von Eschenbach. In approaching this there needs to be a weighing up of literary and pedagogical points of view on the part of the teacher. On the one hand, it is important to avoid using the book – in complete disregard of its historical context – simply as a “mine” of pedagogically relevant topics; on the other, it cannot be treated merely as a prime example of medieval literature, for in that case, with its unfamiliar worldview and style of character presentation, it is likely to be rather off-putting for young people. The point is, therefore, to select themes and motifs with a relevance beyond their historical context and capable of interpretation as archetypal images. Three main considerations may be advanced as to why this work, which is significant in the history of both literature and consciousness, is suitable for class 11. Firstly, the world of the Arthurian knights documents the limits and potentialities of a life controlled by social convention. Secondly, the plot involving Gawain represents a whole cosmos of the heights and depths of human relationships. Thirdly, the actual Parsifal story describes a process of inner realisation and an individual’s path through the stages of failure, guilt, atonement and grace. “Parsifal” also works for class 11 on account of the fact that it is a developmental novel, but of a kind that, due to its historical context, features both the typical and the individual, and this is much more immediately comprehensible than a modern novel. The medieval worldview is fixed and unified. Here the search for personal identity comes to an ideal conclusion, which is at the same time integration into the world. In addition, the story contains a wealth of archetypal images of inner development in Western terms. Processing this courtly work can occur through a variety of assignments, in which themes from the story are discussed. It can also involve considerations of structure and style, historical context and the characteristics of the literary genre the novel belongs to. A further possibility would be to go into the language it was originally written in (which could relate back to the class 10 main lesson). [In some schools, the block has been combined successfully with a practicum in Camphill. In some cases, the experience was life-changing. What a powerful way to bring home the relevance of the central question Parzival has to learn to ask: “What ails thee? “]
Second main lesson
[The German text tells us that] this main lesson could consist of an exploration of literary parallels from a variety of epochs that echo themes in the Parsifal story. These are universal themes which have been taken up in both ancient and modern literature and dealt with in a variety of different ways. They include: the process of self-realisation, the motif of the receiving and inflicting of wounds, one’s relationship to others, the nature of love, the problem of guilt and atonement, the shadow side of the psyche, the influence of upbringing upon subsequent maturation etc. It is up to the teacher whether this is to be approached in a more literary-historical manner, or by engaging with concrete examples from more modern writers. At any rate, the emphasis can be placed upon epic, lyric or dramatic writings. [Many American schools have continued to teach the Odyssey, Gilgamesh, and Dante in grades 10 and 11. For a highly cogent and contemporary testimony on the initiation themes contained in these works, see David Sloan, Life Lessons, AWSNA publication]
Writing and other language work
A variety of assignments which continue and extend previous ways of working: character studies, analysis of poetry and prose texts, exercises in style etc. The thing is to further refine the students’ ability to engage in empathic dialectics and thereby to arrive at a balanced view, which expresses their own standpoint without diminishing their appreciation of the text in hand.
Great novels of world literature can be taken as themes for presentations.
Methodological considerations
By the time they reach grade 12 most of the students are 18 years old. Some are approaching the end of their school career and will be going directly into paid employment, others will soon be entering the year of preparation for their state examinations [In Germany, Waldorf schools often include a 13th year], which is dominated by methods, material and activities strictly geared to this purpose. In grade 12, however, the subject of home language and literature has the task of reviewing what has been learned in previous years and of rounding off the whole process. This can take the form of a reflective survey, but not in any encyclopaedic sense. Rather it should be reflective in the sense of a consideration of the whole, taking into account philosophical perspectives, aspects of the history of consciousness and the question of the epistemological basis of particular views the students might hold. The imminent step into the first phase of life beyond school and the decisions associated with it mean that certain fundamental ethical questions – such as, what makes for a humane world order and how do I contribute to it? – are no longer “academic”, but existentially concrete. Having the right to vote requires that one is capable of forming considered, independent and responsible judgments.
Lesson content needs to take these questions into account. For instance: how does “academic” knowledge become relevant to real life? What are the central problems and tasks of the present and future? What models are prevalent in scientific understanding, and what assumptions lie behind my own views? Are there limits to science and technology? What is the basis of moral norms and how are they justified?
Suggested lesson content
First main lesson
Ideally, the centrepiece here should be a work of universal stature which exemplifies to a large extent the concerns of this age-group. A prime example of such a work is Goethe’s drama Faust. In his struggle for knowledge its protagonist demonstrates, to an extraordinary degree, the characteristics of a modern human being, while at the same time bringing to expression the social problems attendant upon the process of individuation.
Through in-depth study of both parts of the tragedy as well as the background literature (the literary and historical precursors in folk-tales, puppet plays, Marlowe etc., certain “relatives”, such as Ibsen’s Peer Gynt, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, successors, such as Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, and an account of the almost life-long creative process on Goethe’s part that went into the making of the work) a host of connections to themes of relevance to both present and future can be opened up: the problems associated with scientific research and its moral and ethical limits, the confrontation with evil, the question of human freedom and responsibility, the themes of love, egoism and guilt, the human being’s concern with the limits of consciousness, with transcendence and the polarity between the ideal and the sensual – all these can provide material for discussion in class. Taking a look at Faust’s performance history can also be a concise way of presenting a history of the modern theatre. [See also: Why Faust for High School Seniors? by Wendy Bruneau. In: Renewal, Volume 19, number 1. For a nuanced and up-to-date discussion on the pros and cons of teaching certain books, see David Sloan, Life Lessons, AWSNA publications]
Second main lesson
Whereas the first main lesson entailed the study of one complete work, the second one opens up the possibility of giving a survey of world literature featuring several outstanding works. They can be presented singly or compared on the basis of selected motifs, or kinships of style and structure. Even though the emphasis here is on modern literature, it is a good idea to consider the historical context with a view to illuminating the genesis of literary works. This can involve viewing them not only as characteristic expressions of a particular epoch, class, mentality etc., i.e. as symptoms of evolving consciousness, but also as autonomous testimonials of individual creativity. The participation of the reader can also be considered as a means of arriving at the insight that aesthetic judgments can change over the course of centuries. Such insight may encourage the students to be more tolerant towards modern cultural products they might otherwise have rejected.
Instead of providing the students with an “official” poetic canon, the teacher should enable the students to work out and further develop their own methods of evaluating poetic quality.
[In many American schools, Faust continues to be taught. Moreover, Faust , part 2 is forward-looking and opens surprising vistas with its final emphasis on redemption, granted as long as we never cease to strive. In some schools, Russian novels of the 19th century are taught (e.g. “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoyevsky), also offering a future perspective, this time from an angle rarely provided by our Western outlook. Russian literature opens this other ‘window’, because it makes sense of suffering and anticipates a future global awareness and brotherhood. However, the most profound literary main lesson of this year, for most students, deals with the Transcendentalists. Through the voices of Emerson, Thoreau, Emily Dickinson, and others, seniors are given wings, especially when they get an opportunity to write their own “Song of Myself”, like Whitman, deliver their own Lyceum lecture, like Emerson, or journal about their solitary experiences in the woods, like Thoreau*. Cherrie Latuner has done this for years at the Hartsbrook School in Hadley, MA, to great acclaim. ]
Writing and other language work
The refining of writing skills continues and this serves the purposes of a range of exercises in text analysis and interpretation. These include writing essays on specific questions, answering which involves the ability to discern those features of a poetic or literary text which are typical of its time and of its genre, and to comment upon them argumentatively. The exercises mentioned in connection with classes 9 to 11 are continued and modified along these lines.
The students should now be increasingly capable of organising lessons themselves, in that they approach the process of inquiry into a particular text, say, by preparing historical presentations and setting their own assignments.
The class 12 play
The public performance of a play is one of the highpoints of the whole 12 years of school. The play will have been chosen by the students and the preparations for its performance integrate the work of several different departments. The students are also intensely involved in all aspects of the production from the dramaturgy, music, poster-, costume- and stage-design to the directing and staging. Both for the understanding of a play and for the biography of each of the young people involved, as well as for the class community, a project like this can be highly significant. The chance to extend oneself, and in so doing give expression to inklings of one’s future personality is something which normally only comes into effect in grade 12. [For examples and very helpful synopses of plays, see: David Sloan: Stages of Imagination, Working Dramatically with Adolescents, AWSNA publications]
Gabriele Böttcher: Die bunte Feder. Entdeckungen an der Sprache. Kassel 2011
Dühnfort, E. (1987): Der Sprachbau als Kunstwerk, Stuttgart
Fiechter, H. P./Zech, M. M. (2013): FAUST lesen. Kassel
Lutzker, P. (1996): Der Sprachsinn, Stuttgart
Röh, C.-P. (2007): Grammatik auf der Bühne. Stuttgart
Schuchhardt, M. (2010): Kunst und Dichtung im Spannungsfeld von Apollo und Dionysos. Stuttgart
Steiner, R. (1975): Konferenzen mit den Lehrern der Freien Waldorfschule Stuttgart 1919–1924, 2. Band. GA 300b, Dornach
Steiner, R. (1987): Die gesunde Entwicklung des Menschenwesens. GA 303, Dornach
Steiner, R. (1992): Die menschliche Seele in ihrem Zusammenhang mit göttlich-geistigen Individualitäten. GA 224, Dornach