At the time when the first Waldorf School was founded, handwork for girls, usually from class 3 onwards, was a matter of course. The subject, with a distinct emphasis upon its artistic aspects, was immediately adopted by the Waldorf curriculum, but right from class 1, and for boys as well as girls.

From their first day on, pupils are exposed to an artistic way of working in lessons such as music and eurythmy, and to this artistic aspect handwork adds the practical. This creates a balanced relationship to the more cognitive subjects: the children are addressed on various levels – “holistically”. Even when the phase of detachment from their surroundings sets in this can be effectively compensated for (Marti 2011: p. 80). The fruit of such an educational path is a mature power of discernment, capable of sound judgment, and of grasping authentic relationships (➝Background considerations).

In handwork this is initially supported above all through the intense practising of rhythmic movements. In this way, not only do initially forced, fine-motor movements become relaxed and flowing, but there also occurs an immediate, unconscious merging with the thought content and logic of the manual technique in question.

At first, then, handwork teaching works upon the bodily foundations of the faculty of judgment. In later years, the emphasis is increasingly upon making the movements and task-specific actions more conscious, with a view to the basic aim of arriving at “knowledge-based work” (Fucke 1998: p. 58ff.). This means not only understanding and being able to manipulate technical processes for various useful purposes, but also becoming familiar with the design procedures involved in the production of an artefact. The pedagogical aim here is the experience of working in an artistic way. Handwork thus awakens not only awareness and understanding of the processes involved in the world of work, but also of the artefacts that surround us, as long as there is a correspondence between the way something is made and the use it is put to.

As a subject, handwork taps into the human wish for practical action and creativity. Not only the thoroughly worthwhile goal of the finished product, but also the overall process of making it, should provide the students with an experience that satisfies their creative impulses. Achieving this is a matter of ensuring that the levels of will and feeling are permeated with the cognitive aspects of a particular learned skill (Kranich 2002: p. 517f.) and with the effects of the materials and colours used (Ohlendorf 2008: p. 11). This, in turn, entails a high degree of differentiated sensory engagement on the level of the bodily senses (those of touch, movement, balance and general visceral awareness; Quadflieg & v. Vegesack 1998: p. 215ff.). All this depends ultimately upon the use of an age-appropriate methodology in conjunction with high-quality, natural materials in aesthetically appealing colours, which can be applied as desired.

Just as in main lessons the teacher does not content him- or herself with a purely cognitive description of the technologies associated with different cultural epochs, so in a practical subject like handwork the converse applies, in that a cognitive element must be included to make a success of the lessons. In exactly the same way, introducing – in class 4 – a more cognitive approach to creative and practical processes corresponds to the way – in class one – the age-appropriate presentation of materials in the form of a “teaching story” can have a positive effect on the attitude to the finished artefact.       

Handwork can help children feel at home in the world and in their own bodies, and the extent to which it does this relates to the kind of tasks the teacher selects. Many different kinds of “home” can be produced: e.g. bags for every-day objects, articles of clothing, are reflections of this. In general, the practical usefulness of the products is of prime importance. Smaller, more decorative things can be made as extras, especially in connection with the seasons. These can serve to refine the sense of colour and form. However, high aesthetic quality should be a feature of everything that is produced. This is arrived at – as mentioned above – through artistic design conditioned by the nature of the object to be made. This also means that in every artefact the pupil’s personality can find expression. At the very least, therefore, the children are always allowed to choose the colour themselves, and thus have the possibility of further engagement with the process as a whole.

What follows offers general, age-related suggestions and perspectives for handwork in grades 1 to 8. What can actually be achieved depends, among other things, upon the character and composition of the particular group of children. Within the mixed-ability context the pupils are met, through qualitative and/or quantitative measures, in such a way that they are all able to manage and finish the tasks they are given.

Methodological considerations

The strong participatory connection the children still have to their immediate surroundings (the “one-world feeling”) together with the well-tuned sense of rhythm typical of this phase of development are both key aspects of the initial stages of handwork teaching. Priority is given to rhythmic looping and interweaving movements, as opposed to tasks requiring sharp focus, such as needlework. Knitting and crochet are therefore the main activities engaged in.

            Both begin with simple tasks. Over the course of these three years technical demands are gradually increased and new patterns gently introduced. This requires increasing accuracy of finger-movements and thus fine-motor skills are gradually improved. This is also the laying down of what has been called “bodily knowledge”, a direct experience of “the intelligence in the stitch” (Molly 1981: p. 559) and thus of the logic latent in handwork itself. The children are not made aware of this experience, but it is nonetheless an important pedagogical aim. The overall assumption is that, for instance, knitting inculcates the ability to think logically (Kranich 2002: p. 520f.; Steiner GA 30214.6.1921 and 15.6.1921, (german edition 1986: p. 49 and p. 69)). The importance of fine-motor skills for the development of numeracy and literacy has already been proven (Suggate 2014).

            Crocheting is introduced later than knitting, since it requires closer attention to the way the mesh takes shape. Working with only one needle, and the more asymmetrical movements associated with this, supports the development of reflective consciousness (Marti 2011: p. 78).

            Teaching young children how to perform the complex actions involved in various kinds of handwork tasks is best done “pictorially”, for instance through rhythmic verses accompanied by gestures, or through little stories specially made up for the purpose. In identifying with such pictures, the children are able to act in sympathy with whatever is shown to them, without their necessarily becoming conscious of the technical details (e.g. whether they are knitting purl or plain) or of their own precise movements. Thus fear of failure or “mental blocks” are avoided.

             As the key skill upon which all subsequently learned techniques will be based, a high value is placed upon learning to knit. Much time is spent upon developing relaxed and harmonious movements between the left and right hands as required, for instance, in “casting on” or in having an ergonomically optimal way of holding the needles.

            Using beautiful, natural materials, such as wool coloured with natural dyes, has a positive influence on motivation in the first three years, helping the children to persevere, and making the whole process into a rich sensory and artistic experience. The artistic here is, of course, an intrinsic part of the process, and has not yet been made the object of conscious design. Pictorially rich stories about the materials and where they come from form the first steps in building up a body of knowledge about craft materials. Developing manual dexterity is also supported by finger games.

Suggested lesson content

Class/grade 1

• knitting simple, small useful objects and toys
• winding (from carded wool to a toy figure or from a skein to a ball)
• Finishing using various simple types of stitch (whipstitch, running stitch), simple fastenings, knurl work, simple decorations (using basic embroidery stitches)

Class/grade 2

• crocheting using simple mesh patterns

Otherwise as in class one.

Class/grade 3

• knitting and crocheting larger, more elaborate pieces for every-day use: e.g. first articles of clothing – this can be done in connection with the main-lesson in house-building and gives the children a further opportunity to make themselves at home in the world; a good choice here could be to make a bonnet
• gradually building up the form of a ball (e.g. by means of winding or felting), followed by the decoration of the surface (e.g. with embroidery)
• in parallel with the main lesson on trades, themes like weaving and dressmaking could be looked at more closely in handwork lessons
• making hand-puppets and performing a play with them

Methodological considerations

Now, at the very latest, it can be assumed that, with the loosening of the earlier bond with the world that occurs at this age, the pupils have become mentally much more self-aware. The kind of activity that involves “targeting a specific point” corresponds to this new quality and opens up a broad area of potential experience and development. A fundamental shift in the focus of handwork is now possible: the rounded, intertwining movement now moves into the background and needlework activities such as sewing and embroidery take centre-stage. In addition, as in other subjects, the individual components of what was originally put forward as a “whole” are gradually made conscious: first of all the design element, independent of any practical activity, is made the subject of the lessons; the various types of stitch used in sewing and embroidering are precisely introduced, and emphasis is increasingly laid upon work that is fine, exact and subject to correction.

Limb movements that “cross the mid-line” are well-known as an important factor in the development of cognitive ability, and for this reason the sharpening of focus and increase in conscious deliberation that occurs at this age can be understood in terms of this “crossing gesture”. Handwork activities that involve crossing the mid-line thus support this developmental step at the level of the will and can therefore take their place from now on as a leading motif for the whole year.

Suggested lesson content

• accurate sewing by hand using all the normal kinds of stitches, familiarity with technical terms
• embroidery using various types of stitch
• making and designing a household object, with a view to its function and usefulness
• activities involving “crossing”, such as mirroring patterns, embroidering in cross- and herringbone-stitch, plaiting with five or more threads around a central one, weaving using frames – fan-shaped or rectangular, knot-work

Methodological considerations

A protracted “logical” activity, such as knitting a one-piece article of clothing, matched exactly to the form of the body, gives sustenance to the ten-year-old’s way of thinking, with its growing propensity for perceiving how things fit together. Knitting socks or gloves is particularly appropriate at this age because of the skills it exercises. The process involves creating intricate forms, such as those of heel or thumb, through the interplay of a number of needles in a complex sequence of steps demanding concentration and attention to detail. Every step, such as a change of needle, represents an interruption, and this in turn encourages attention (Hennersdorf 2002). Making the peak of a cap is particularly advantageous in this regard, since it has very clear lines and involves alternating between working in two and three dimensions.

Suggested lesson content

• knitting with five needles: socks with shaped heels, mittens with thumb-pieces
• “cross-over” work, as in class 4, but of increasing complexity
• introduction to the making of toy animals or puppets (cf. class 6)

Methodological considerations

With the quality of intellectuality that emerges at this time the connection between cause and effect can be grasped anew. For handwork this means giving emphasis to if-then relationships when, for instance, something cannot be made in one piece, but has to be assembled out of individual parts. Depending upon the degree of complexity, the students can possibly be left to work out the necessary steps for themselves. The pattern of cuts, however, should not need to be too exact, but should have a certain amount of built-in flexibility for them to play with, while the overall theme (making animals, or dolls) gives the necessary structure. Thus the main things produced will be animals and dolls (puppets) rather than clothes.

It is in the making of animal figures that there is a step which marks a real transition. This occurs at the step in the process just before stuffing begins (i.e. the turning of the sewn outer covering of the animal). Here merely methodical sewing changes to a creative search for expression.

The important thing here is to create figures with real spatial presence, and this is achieved with animals that stand on four legs, or dolls with arms attached at an angle to the shoulder seam and angled feet. At this age the artistic sense is cultivated by making things that in form are close to nature and capture something of the figure’s authentic character, not by producing sentimental cuteness or caricature.

Suggested lesson content

• stuffed animals and/or dolls (puppets): working out and cutting out the pattern, sewing together, stuffing, dressing (using paint, embroidery, hair, puppet clothes)

Methodological considerations

All subjects of the grade 7 curriculum are related to the dynamic between outer and inner individualisation. In keeping with this they focus upon the fact that young people at this age are engaged upon developing their own individual standpoint, while at the same time offering them ways of seeing themselves from a wider perspective.

In this sense a whole range of handwork topics can have the required educational effects: making shoes relates to the individual stance, involving, as it does, the fashioning of a spatial casing for the feet. More flexible, textile artefacts, such as bags, can be given an individual “touch”; in making a hammock, every knot is a point of intersection between swinging into the periphery (world) and staying at the centre (self). Physically demanding activities like felting, leather processing, or making soles promote staying-power, but often also – especially in the case of boys – provide a way of mopping up surplus energy.

The work of this school-year represents a continuation and age-appropriate intensification of what has been learned in previous years. In terms of the above-mentioned changes of perspective, designing the form of an artefact can now involve the free play of imagination, and with due attention paid to functional considerations, lead to something concrete (Fucke 1998: p. 196ff.). Cutting things out must now be done exactly. Through choosing to use materials such as leather, standards of accuracy and the ability to concretise ideas can be greatly enhanced.

Suggested lesson content

• bags with firm bottoms, simple articles of clothing, hats: design, working out patterns; hand-knitting a whole article as preparation for knitting on a machine (cf. class 8)
• simple, hand-made shoes: instruction in creating form and cut, learning the manual technique associated with a particular material (felt, leather, cloth)
• leatherwork by hand
• making of hammocks and hanging chairs
• extras: patching, darning, neat ironing

Methodological considerations

In parallel to the theme of industrialisation covered in history lessons, working with machines is now introduced into handwork. The students are already very familiar with the processes involved in sewing by hand. This being the case, the introduction of the sewing machine can be experienced as a little revolution.

Suggested lesson content

• treddle sewing machine: understanding the mechanics, introduction to using a sewing machine by making simple articles
• experience of a division of labour within a group of students in the process of producing something
• instruction in the nature of different materials

For the purposes of placing their relationship to the world on a sound footing, young people have two opposing but complementary inner resources at their disposal: one is their ever-ready faculty of judgment, the other their deep longing for practical experience (Fucke 1998: p. 12ff.). The teaching of handwork takes full account of both poles, and through the classroom activities engaged in, they are exercised and refined. This creates in the students a foundation which increasingly enables them to take charge of their own lives. The gaining of certain practical skills and the acquisition of a rich store of experience are central qualities that equip the soul with confidence in life and the will to take on responsibility (Lievegoed 2013: p. 70ff.).

In the high school, handwork becomes a subject in its own right, in that the fundamentals of various handwork crafts are taught by trained professionals. Thus accuracy in planning and execution and the associated clarity in relation to every step of the process become the naturally accepted standard for the students. The practical procedures involved are described rationally and with due heed paid to the nature of the material; the handling of all tools should be controlled and well-practised (“intelligent”). The ultimate test of these standards is not the opinion of the teacher, but the quality of the artefact itself. Thus the students experience the demand for corrective adjustments upon a truly objective basis.

Handwork offers some activities (such as dressmaking and weaving) that involve a lot of planning and preparation, where the practical execution comes after the more intellectual side of the process, and others, such as basket-weaving and spinning, which exercise practical activities more immediately. But the signature common to all of them is the total engagement of the will in any given task (Fucke 1998: p. 50. P. 75f.).

A further common factor, that takes them beyond the purely technical, is that, as in all previous years, all activities have an artistic character. In addition to the requirement that they develop manual dexterity, the students can also be asked to bring their artistic creativity to bear upon the things they make. Each individually realised form can thus be both true to its function and aesthetically satisfying. Especially from class 11 on the aesthetic element can be given special emphasis – in the design of clothes, for instance. In principle, every article made should be suitable for every-day use, so that the relationship between the particular craft and real life can be made clearly apparent.

In addition to the normal business of theoretical and practical instruction, lessons can – according to the activity in question – be used to give initial insights into matters of production and commerce, as well as global, ecological perspectives. Here the possibility of inter-disciplinary co-operation opens up.

With the step into the high school, handwork is almost exclusively given in the form of main lesson blocks. Students thereby have the opportunity to find their own individual work rhythm, while at the same time practising working together with the group in order to achieve the common goal at the end of the main lesson.

Methodological considerations

Making clothes has been a feature of handwork lessons since class 3. This path of learning now reaches its highpoint: the students, who are now in a phase of radical change, find themselves with the task of making a perfectly fitted, full-length article of clothing. Taking the measurements for this means an exact appraisal of their own body, thus treating it as an object of study. Constructing the pattern entails visualising, in both cognitive and technical terms, how a mobile, three-dimensional body can be effectively clothed in two-dimensional material. It also means that considerable pains must be taken in planning the form – whereas, for instance, with basket-weaving (see below) the form develops largely out of the work itself.

Suggested lesson content

• taking measurements
• pattern (“cut”) construction
• trying-on, alteration of ready-cut pieces
• choice of material according to professional standards
• use of the electric sewing machine

Basket-weaving

Methodological considerations

Students at this age take delight in the acuity of thinking that is now available to them. They are keen to apply it by imposing causal logic on any given situation – often regardless of whether it is appropriate. By contrast, they are also likely to be beset by strong emotional outbursts, which they may have difficulty [in] controlling. Basket-weaving exemplifies the experience of how a somewhat intractable material can be moulded into a regular form. This is particularly apposite in that the weave is initially very hard to visualise, and so the special task is to keep to the structure of the given pattern. It is only when the basket-weaver finds the right rhythm, channelling his or her energy and full attention into the shaping process, that a beautiful, firm and stable form can be successfully achieved. This also entails keeping the idea of the intended form clearly in mind all the way through.

Suggested lesson content

• weaving with willow rods
• basics of basketry: types of bases, making planes by means of interlinking, winding, twisting and other (possibly Japanese) techniques, edging
• making a basket of one’s own choice
• estimating material requirements on the basis of sketches

Methodological considerations

In spinning and weaving, the students gain direct experience of a prime example of technological history Textile technology has a history that can be followed theoretically and, circumstances permitting, practically all the way from the Stone Age to the present.

As with land surveying – another main feature of grade 10 (➝ Mathematics ) – with spinning and weaving certain mechanical principles must first be understood and then rediscovered in, or applied to, the technical process. In technical terms spinning and weaving constitute a polarity: whereas with spinning the human being must match his or her body movements, in the moment, to the flow of the yarn, with weaving the relationship to the process is completely different. The work can only proceed on the basis of technical knowledge of the machine and good preparation. By virtue of complete temporal separation between design and execution, the control of a machine through pre-determined information becomes possible. Parallels between the way work proceeds on the loom and the computer can thus serve as a link and introduction to computer technology.

Suggested lesson content

Spinning

• historical development and technical overview
• spinning on hand spindle and spinning wheel
• influence of the processing of yarns upon the technique of spinning, materials science
• twining, coiling, grading of yarns

Weaving

• historical development and technical overview
• principles of tying-in of fibres, preparation of spools
• instruction on the nature of various materials
• preparations for an individual piece of weaving: design, calculation of material requirements: yarn, arranging the threads into which the yarn will be woven (warp, woof and their movements)
• weaving at a loom
• the loom, precursor of digital technology (Brandlmeier 1999)

Methodological considerations

Building upon what has been done in previous years in this subject, the search for individuality in combination with objectivity can now be taken further in the form of artistic projects. From class 11 on the importance of developing a sense of responsibility in relation to initiative, ideas and planning can be impressed on the students. Accordingly, projects are well-suited to being carried out in the form of teamwork.

The range of possible project topics is very broad. From class 11, textiles in relation to interior design can also be included as a theme, as well as exploration of the bridge between the formerly experienced work procedure (idea, sketch, planning, execution) and the disciplines of fine and applied art: design, engineering and production.

Suggested lesson content

• clothes, accessories, objects for every-day use, fabrics as elements of interiors
• design (considering elements of colour, form and style; developing a sense for practicability), planning (technical drawing, pattern construction), preparation (materials and processes to be used)
• interior design (e.g. of one’s own room); taking exact measurements, drawing to scale, practicality and purpose of furniture, effects of colours upon spaces
• various technical applications such as batik, stencilling, painting with dyes, dyeing, embroidering, upholstering etc.

Methodological considerations

Working with various kinds of cardboard, the foundations are being laid for the class 12 bookbinding main lesson. The students are introduced to the materials involved, which can be somewhat tricky to work with, and learn to recognise the qualities they display in the process (e.g. surface texture, smell, elasticity, etc.). In addition to the practical and theoretical knowledge acquired in working with these materials, the students also develop a sense of how they can be used in both aesthetic and functional ways.

This demands both a strict and concentrated way of working (planning, calculating, accurate execution) and imaginative flexibility. It thus exercises both strict accuracy and the ability to work “by eye”.

Suggested lesson content

• making pressed paper
• learning to use the newly introduced materials: paper, cardboard,  

board, gauze, leather, various glues

• techniques: scoring, making grooves, folding, cutting, laminating, gluing, stapling, pressing
• in the course of various practical tasks the students are introduced to the various tools and machines involved and learn to use them on their own
• partly according to a prescribed pattern and partly based upon their own design, various pieces are made: e.g. A4 main lesson books, Leporello books, folders, loose-leaf folders with ring binders, boxes with lining    

Methodological considerations

Building upon the previous year’s work, both in terms of content and method, the students’ main theoretical, practical and artistic focus is now “the book”. The theory component is concerned with the history of paper and the book. The practical component follows the development of the modern art of the book from its origins as a craft, and culminates in the individual implementation of the process. Decisive in choosing the technique, material and artistic design of the binding is the content of the book.

In book-binding the students are exercising their skill in following a process built up in a logical sequence of steps, while refining their sense of proportion (the golden section), symmetry and spatial relationships.

Suggested lesson content

• history of paper and books and their forerunners
• making marbled paper
• processing of paper, cardboard, gauze, leather, parchment
• techniques: folding sharp edges, binding together, padding, cutting (on a machine) sticking, pressing, colour- and gilt-edging, title design
• whole process from broadsheet to complete book in “portrait” or “landscape” format
• cardboard-, semi-cloth-, wholly cloth-, semi-leather-, wholly leather-bound volumes, parchment volumes, brochures
• restoration
• Slipcase making (composite or scribed)

Making a book of one’s own choice from start to finish, with a design that matches the content  

Brandlmeier, T. (1999): Vom Luxusartikel zum Konsumgut. In: Meisterwerke aus dem Deutschen Museum Band II, Bonn

Fucke, E. (1998): Grundlinien einer Pädagogik des Jugendalters. Zur Lehrplankonzeption der Klassen 6 bis 10 an Waldorfschulen. Stuttgart

Hauck, H. (1993): Kunst und Handarbeit. Anregungen von Rudolf Steiner für Pädagogen und Künstler. Stuttgart

Hennersdorf, J. (2002): Im Labyrinth des Minotaurus. Strümpfe- und Handschuhestricken in der 5. Klasse. In: Erziehungskunst: S. 537–538, Stuttgart

Karutz, M. (1992): Zur Lebenskunde III – Die Spinnepoche. Stuttgart

Kranich, E.-M. (2002): Die Intelligenz der Hände. Hand-Arbeit und Gehirnentwicklung. In: Erziehungskunst Nr. 5, S. 515–522, Stuttgart

Lievegoed, B. C. J. (2013): Entwicklungsphasen des Kindes. Stuttgart

Marti, T. (2011): Bewegungsentwicklung bei 10- bis 14-jährigen Kindern. Eine empirische Studie zur Entwicklung und Bedeutung der Händigkeit und Füßigkeit. RoSE 2011, S. 66–88 (online)

Martin, M. (Hrsg.) (1991): Der künstlerisch-handwerkliche Unterricht in der Waldorfschule. Stuttgart

Molly, I. (1981): Zum Handarbeitsunterricht im zweiten Jahrsiebt. In: Erziehungskunst, S. 557–560, Stuttgart

Ohlendorf, U. (2008): Stricken und Häkeln im Handarbeitsunterricht der Waldorfschule. Kassel

Mrusek, R. (1985): Der Schäfer geht zum Tor hinein. Aus dem Handarbeitsunterricht der ersten Klasse. In: Erziehungskunst Nr. 11, S. 699–701

Quadflieg-von Vegesack, B. (1998): Ungewöhnliche Kleinkinder und ihre heilpädagogisch Förderung: von der Geburt bis zur Einschulung. Ostfildern

Sigler, A. (Hrsg.) (2013): Kreuzen. Handarbeitsunterricht in der 4. und 5. Klasse an Waldorfschulen. Kassel

Steiner, R. (1986): Menschenerkenntnis und Unterrichtsgestaltung. GA 302, Dornach

Suggate, S. (2014): Feinmotorik und feinsinnige Gedanken. Befunde aus dem Kindergarten und der Grundschule. In: Erziehungskunst, S. 5–9

In his proposals for the curriculum, Steiner set great store upon ensuring that the practical side of life be accorded as much educational importance as the intellectual or the artistic. The purpose of this is not only to become proficient in certain crafts. Rather the practice of these special skills reflects back upon cognitive abilities. As Steiner said: “[…] when you know that someone […] is good at working with their fingers, you also know they are likely to have supple thoughts and ideas…” (Steiner GA 301, 26.04.1920, (German edition 1991, p. 80))  – “The integration of sensory stimuli with the planning and execution of sequences of movement is nothing less than a comprehensive development and maturation process for the brain.” (Korte 2009: p.214). This is why the craft teacher carries a huge responsibility.

Whereas little children playfully imitate the activities of adults, from about class three onwards the desire awakens to be using their own hands creatively. The curriculum meets this with the main-lessons on crafts and trades, housebuilding and farming (→ Practical knowledge). The class-teacher visits the school workshops or other craftsmen with the class and arranges for the children to make little things of their own, perhaps with the help of the craft teacher. Besides this, the children get to meet individuals who embody this kind of work, and this can leave a strong, lasting impression (→ Practical knowledge).

From class/grade 5 or 6 on, then, the actual craft lessons begin. Step by step the various tools are introduced and the first simple pieces of joinery are done. Here aesthetics are just as important as functionality and accuracy. Careful attention should also be paid to the use and treatment of tools and materials, as well as to the need to keep order in the workshop.

Methodological considerations

The tools suitable for this age-group are the whittling knife, saw, drill, hammer etc. Chisel and mallet should only come into use once the wrist bone is sufficiently developed. The children are taught the correct forms of grip and posture, as well as the motions they need to perform.

Suggested lesson content

• Green-stick carving of little figures, animals, toys and useful small household objects
• Little ships made of bark
• First processing of wood using the plane, rasp and file in the making of simple objects like a breadboard, kitchen-roll holder etc.

In addition to woodwork, pottery and clay-modelling can also begin. As a first step various kinds of thumb-work bowls could be done. In parallel to the main lesson on zoology various animal forms could be modelled (→ Modelling and Sculpture).

Methodological considerations

A characteristic of Waldorf education is that much is begun in the primary school and taken up again later in a new form. Thus in craft lessons it has been found useful to reach back to the very first lesson in grade one, when the straight and curved lines were drawn. These form principles appear again in the fashioning of artefacts. Focusing upon a wooden cooking spoon, all the various tools and work procedures can be suitably introduced. While long uniform movements can be carried out on flat surfaces with saw, plane or drawing block, curved surfaces are produced with chisel, rasp and file using short, rhythmic movements.

In the making of toys the new element of mobility is added in. The students can have their first hands-on experience of mechanical processes, before learning about the laws that govern them in class 7 physics. Wood itself can now be studied more closely, with a look at the various trees and the woods they produce. This can also involve paying attention to the grain when working with wood.

Suggested lesson content

• Kitchen utensils such as cooking spoons, spatulas, salad servers, mallets, flour scoops
• Mobile toys such as waddling ducks with wheels, zigzagging bears, swings, carousels

Methodological considerations

Grade 7 physics deals with the foundations of mechanics. What the students learn there is now applied in their craft lessons, where mechanical forces are required in the making of mobile toys with moving parts, such as the pendulum, crank handle, lever and rocker, which play an active role in the movements of cranes, mills, propellers etc. The carving of hollow forms is also appropriate to this age-group. In the making of a bowl they can learn, on the one hand, how to use a carving chisel and mallet correctly. On the other, they have the experience of shaping the border between an inner and an outer space. This corresponds to the stage of development these young people have reached, namely, early puberty, when they are at the beginning of coming to terms with their burgeoning inner life.

Suggested lesson content

• More complicated mechanical toys, nutcrackers, sailing boats
• Bowls, pen-holders, jars with lids

In clay-work the clothed human figure can be modelled, also in relation to animals (→ Modelling and sculpture). In pottery, making coil-type vessels can be introduced.

Methodological considerations

The students are now well-practised and physically mature enough to carry out fairly simple joinery work. Having overcome an initial reluctance that often appears, they enjoy putting their growing powers to the test. In introducing the first types of joint, e.g. using dowels, ensuring accuracy of fit and care is indispensable. Besides joinery, it is possible – according to the challenges the students need and the capabilities of the teacher – to undertake some more specialised tasks, such as making boats, bows, brushes etc.

Suggested lesson content

• Joinery work – things like stools, little carts, cribs
• Group work and projects
• Simple musical instruments like drums, didgeridoos etc.

In the high school the lessons build upon the basic skills learnt in the primary school, and in addition demand more precision and independent work from the students. The artefacts produced in craft lessons should be relevant both to the young people’s particular stage of development and to their social situation. Steiner’s utterances on the high school curriculum are somewhat sparse. Over the years a very diverse curricular spectrum has developed in the Waldorf school landscape, which is partly due to the influence of the various state exams in the German federal states. Particularly in times of increasing technological development Steiner’s point, that certain practical activities and skills need to be practised between the ages of fifteen and eighteen acquires additional significance.

Whereas in the middle school craft lessons were chiefly concerned with helping the children to find their way into the world and to train their senses, now the main thing is that young people take on tasks of their own and consciously engage their will in them. In addition to the professional presence of the teacher, it is the materials, the tools and the task in hand that now correct, train, develop and educate the students.

The students now encounter various working materials, the properties of which require different processing techniques, with which they must match their design intentions. Finally, it should be noted that here there are overlaps with art – for instance, with the carving of torsos in grade 10, and with the making of stone sculptures in grade 12.

Wood as a material offers ample opportunities to bring technique and design into harmony.

Making shelf-units or boxes with lids etc. is an exacting way of practising and developing sound work procedures. Good fit and function act as objective feedback.

Conscious repetition of work processes and the irrevocable finality of making cuts are a good training for the will and for a sense of responsibility.

Suggested lesson content

• Care and correct use of tools
• Description of materials and first trial pieces in joinery
• Planning the making of an artefact: working out the sequence of steps, carrying them out

Naturally all prescribed safety precautions must be adhered to.

In grade 10 schoolwork generally is characterised by a greater attention to detail. In crafts this means that the earlier, more physical tendency of the work can now be taken more in the direction of thinking and planning. It is also appropriate to engage students of this age in longer processes, as far as the timetable/schedule permits.

More precision is now required, with the students carrying out each step of a work procedure on their own. More kinds of joint are introduced, e.g. tongue and groove etc. Simple hand machines can now be used. A beginning is also made on furniture design. While this is done with artistic perspectives in mind, it is also essential that they remain closely related to the function. Another important consideration is that building a chest of drawers or shelf unit involves putting together prefabricated parts.

At this age young people are ready to take responsibility for their own actions. From first sketch to calculating costs to finished product, they take on the whole process. This also involves developing preferences of their own, which become very evident in the designing of furniture. Some will go for a very organic style, whereas others will tend towards the utilitarian. The basic principle “form follows function” should nonetheless be adhered to. According to the type of training the craft teachers have, and the possibilities that exist within the profile of the school, the various areas of craftwork can be extended in their range of activity and the time given to it. Here the guidelines in different countries will be different in terms of what kinds of machines and materials can/must be used, and what level of training is possible.

Copper beating

The students first hear about the basic qualities of the material, the form in which it occurs in nature and the uses it is put to. Then they are introduced to the process by which it is first made malleable by heating and then tempered by hammering. The mostly rhythmic actions of shaping and smoothing, but also the process of cleaning with sulphuric acid, further their powers of concentration and perseverance.

As a first piece to make, the bowl is the most suitable, for it offers a good way to learn the basics of working with copper, and the act of making such a form bears a deep relation to this age-group’s stage of development. Later arm-bands, bookends, candle-holders etc. can also be made.

Iron forging

By way of introduction, the same goes here as for copper beating. In contrast to copper, however, iron is shaped when hot. Young people must be thoroughly prepared for this, so that they are not anxious in any way, and no one gets burned. First they learn about proper management of the fire, and then about the different hues of glowing iron. In hammering glowing iron, they experience its pliancy. The firm stance before the anvil, the proper way of holding the hammer and tongs, the bold, well-aimed blow, the alertness and quick reactions required at hearth and anvil are all profound experiences.

Suggested lesson content

• Lighting the coals and maintaining the right kind of burn
• Simple shaping of the basic material from round to angled
• Other basic techniques such as pointing, flattening, splitting, bending, stretching and compressing. This can lead to the making of candlesticks, forks, companion sets, wall hooks etc.

Copper beating

In a second main lesson further techniques can be learned. Chief among these is that which renders possible the making of cups, jugs, baking tins and cans. Being proficient in the use of the tools is essential here. Additional techniques that can be applied are riveting, tin-plating, brazing (hard-soldering) etc. The theoretical part of the lesson can deal with the uses of copper and its depletion as a resource.

Iron forging

Here the work can also include new procedures, such as splitting, twisting, hole-punching etc. It can also involve making simple mechanical devices, such as bolts or pliers. Working as a team is also very worthwhile, especially in situations like hammering, where everyone must hold their place in a rhythm.

In the theoretical part of the lesson such topics as smelting, steel-making and wrought-iron work can be covered.

Korte, M. (2009): Wie Kinder heute lernen. Was die Wissenschaft über das kindliche Gehirn weiß. München

Steiner, R. (1991): Die Erneuerung der pädagogisch-didaktischen Kunst durch Geisteswissenschaft. GA 301, Dornach